Breaking news Uhamisho wa watumisho mpya 04 july 2018

Watumishi wa Sekretarieti za Mikoa na Mamlaka za Serikali za Mitaa waliokubaliwa kuhama kuanzia tarehe 23/03/2018 hadi tarehe 30/06/2018     

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What are the advantages and disadvantages of Culture change

Advantage of cultural change

i) It enables people to master their environment due to acquisition of new skill from other societies.

ii) It helps people to cope with environment due to acquisition at new skills

iii) It helps people to improve their welfare in all aspect of life such as economic social, political aspect to due to new technology acquired from other society.

Disadvantages of cultural changes
i) Education and knowledge acquired from outside may cause antagonism with tribal cultures and traditional which opposite with the new ones.

ii) Change of culture may need a lot of realized and, may have limited resources to be realized and may limit resources example it requires large same as money to interpret and write in Kiswahili all English reduce used in Tanzania school.

iii) Strange custom like wearing short dress tight clothes have been temptation to men towards a cause of commuting of fence like rape. Wearing of short dress, miniskirt and using cosmetics were copied from abroad.

iv) Cultural changes is not a rapid event. It is gradual change and needs long period of time for a society to be totally changed. This is because some people are quick to imitate and adapt but others are slow.

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The meaning and factors for Culture change

Cultural change

Culture does not remain stagnant since it is influenced by the life of the societies. As the system of life change can therefore be define as a process in which societies charges their pattern of culture. The following are some of the factors which influenced cultural change;

1. Internal factors; These are forced which emerge within the societies and cause the system of life to change so as to cope with the new environment .one of best example of the internal forced that can lead to cultural change is invention of new technology.

2. External factors; cultural change can be traced as far back as to the time when African continent started to have a with different country from a board. Those countries came with their way of life like dressing styles, language, religion and education.

Other factors influencing cultural change

• Migration/immigration; This is the movement of people from one place to another such as from rural to urban and from one country to another. A person may be affected by the ways of life of the destination area

• Communication; Always people communicate with other from different parts of the world. As explained before that people differ in culture and total system of life. Through communication, people imitate new culture from different groups.

• Liberalization polices; means removing something that bring restrictions. Liberalization policies can be in political, economic and social aspect.

• Influence of socialization agents; include peer group, schools, religion and mass media socialization agent are instrument through which a person can learn and get different information about the society.

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What are the ways for ensuring preventive care and maintenance of personal and public Property

The ways for ensuring preventive care and maintenance of personal and public Property

i) Cleanliness of the surrounds.

ii) Making frequency check up and inspection of property.

iii) Regular maintenance that minimizes the costs of up keeping of building furniture and fixture.

iv) Regular maintenance that creates a conductive environment to user.

v) Regular care and maintenance of existing building and facilities so as to ensure and prolong the life span of building and equipment.

Consequence of neglecting timely repairing and maintenance of person and public property.
i. Increase the cost of repairing and maintaining the property.

ii. Decrease the durability or lifespan of the neglected property which may in turn necessitate the losing of the of the property or unplanned buying of the new one.

iii. It reduce the quality or worthy of the property i.e it can make property less attractive to the people.

iv. It may lead to conflict in the society.

v. Environment destruction.

vi. May lead to the loss of important information and various properties.

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Factors which hinder promotion of worthy cultural values

Factors which hinder promotion of worthy cultural values

Despite all attempts made by the government to build, promote and preserve national cultural values still there are some factors which act as hindrances. These factors include the following;

1. Colonial legacy; Because of colonial legacy many Tanzania by the government are not confident in creating things. They are still having the mental attitude of being inferior to the white men colonialists established policies of assimilation and association together with the administrative and educational system.

2. Low level of science and technology; The capacity of production in Tanzania both materially and morally is doomed because much of technology is brought from abroad. There fore this creates sciences and technology dependence.

3. Ignorance; A great number of people are illiterate. Thus they are limited to their environment and they can hardly effectively control it. As they are trapped by the environment it there fore hinders them to promote and preserve their worthy cultural values.

4. Poor leadership; some of the leader are not committed to the task of promoting and preserving the worthy cultural value .Due to this have failed to established concrete policies which promote worthy cultural value. Those few who have managed to do so they have also failed to make thorough follow up as result most of national cultural value polices ended remaining in shelves.

5. Lack of enough funds; This problem leader and other people to contract research concerning with promotion and preservation of worthy cultural value.

6. Globalization; The growing interaction among people of different cultures, history, origin and beliefs have contributed much to the hindrance of the promotion of the worthy cultural values. A good example can be observed from the change in our traditional wedding and burial ceremonies, religious beliefs etc .In these ceremonies people are no longer interested in their traditional dances and songs but mostly they prefer foreign ones.

Solutions to the problems arising from the process of promoting and preserving of our cultural values

To integrate our culture with education and work.

To educate people on the importance of our cultural values.

People should choose or put into power the committed leaders who will be able to advocate for our worthy cultural values.

Strict laws, rules and regulation for those who despise our cultural value should be enacted by the government.

Government should formulate good police that promotes our cultural values.

Excessive dependence on foreign science and technology should be reduced.

Government should allocate enough funds for making research concerning the promotion and preservation of our worthy cultural value.

Establishing cultural clubs in school and other places with the aims of promotion and e our worthy cultural value.

Law for protection of intellectual property which have been enacted by the government should strongly be enforced


Culture of preventive care and maintenance of personal and public property

Preventive care and maintenance can be defined as a system of planning maintenance which involves inspection and making necessary modification so that properties can be used for a longer period. Maintenance involves timely repairing of property before it gets damages completely.

Importance of culture of preventive care and maintenance of personal and public property.

i) It helps to keep the property in a good condition for a long time, hence be profitable to the owner and other users.

ii) It reduces cost of making major repair by protecting the property from being severely damage.

iii) It enables people to inherit the property to their young ones or to the future generations.

iv) The culture of preventive care and maintenance of the personal and public property can help can help to preserves or keep record their cultural value that that can be used later as source of information by the researchers.

v) Culture of preventive care and maintenance of personal and public property can help to promote tourism if the preserved properties are of higher value and attractive to other people especially the foreigners.

vi) It helps to preserves the environment by reducing the piling or random throwing dumping if the damage or ruined property.

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What are the roles of different groups and institution in promoting and preservation of our worthy cultural values

The roles of different groups and institution in promoting and preservation of our worthy cultural values


1. The National Kiswahili Council; was established in August 9.1967 with its major roles being to promote and develop Kiswahili as a national language .The council enable Kiswahili to be used in all area of national communication .To day, Kiswahili is spoken and understood by a lost all Tanzania .The first president of Tanzania Mwalim JK Nyerere used Kiswahili to unite the whole of Tanzania as nation.

2. The Nation Sports Council; was established in 1967. The role of this council is,

(a) To develop, promote and control all amateur sports in the country. The council does this in co-operation with voluntary amateur sports organization. Amateur sports are sports played for enjoyment not for money.

In order to carry out this the national sport council does the following,

· Provide training of staff member

· Make grants or gives aid to national sport association or organization

· Provide playing fields and other sports facilities

· Provides sports equipment and other sports items necessary for international sport competition and festivals

(b) To provide medals, diplomas, certificate, or any other rewards.

(c) To provide scholarships for the training of the coaches and sports administrators.

(d) To advise the responsible minister on all matter related to sports.

3. The national festival and state celebrations; the council facilitates celebration of important national occasion. The council ensures that the nation does not engage in meaningless and unending celebration. The council deals with national public holiday. These national occasion are celebrated with demonstration, speeches, songs, dance, feats sports and games. There are religious holiday as well, which are public holiday but are not under this council. The holiday includes Christmas for the Christians and Eid for Muslims. Prayers, sports and games dances and feast, mark these religious holidays.

4. Departments of museum, Antiquities and National Archives; These department preserve national heritage in the form of cultural treasure and writings. Hence they stimulate much cultural enthusiasm among the people.

i) Museums; there are national as well as regional museums in Tanzania. They provide a safe permanent place for preserving national tradition, customs and work of art. They serve as cultural and recreational centers for the people of the united Republic of Tanzania. They are also important as attractions.

ii) Antiquities; Are import objects that have existed for very long time. They include remains of ancient buildings such as tradition, church, places and tombs. Tanzania is very rich in antiquities for example the ruins of old building, found at Kaole (near Bagamoyo) Kilwa and Mtwara Mikindani.

iii) National film censorship board; This organ hand one main role , that was to censor films before they are shown .To censor a films means to examine it and decide whether it is suitable for the public. The board was supposed to censor all the films which were intended to promote national culture, education and development. But due to liberalization of trade the board has not succeeded to reach goal.

iv) The council of arts and crafts; Africa countries through their governments and communities encourage creativity in art and crafty as a way of identify their cultural needs .The main purpose was to make art and crafts a servant of the people. They are supposed to be tools to helps African understand and shape their societies according to their collective needs That is the meaning of creativity.

v) Education institutions; After independence, African government, church and communities improved the educating system inherited from colonial master to suit African national culture. There were various reason for the education system inherited at Independence to be improved. Those reason were as follow;

· The aims and content of the colonial education promoted values and interest of the colonizer.

· The colonial education system was intended only to train the African for the clerical and junior administrative posts

· The education system emphasized theoretical learning. It ignored practical learning and experiments. African students lacks skill and creativity.

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What are the Importance of promoting and preserving of our worthy cultural value

Promotion and preservation of our worthy cultural values

Is a combination of efforts made by people under their government to enhance growth and existence of the national culture which has to be practiced in the nation.




Importance of promoting and preserving of our worthy cultural value
i) To maintain our national identity.

ii) To provide a foundation for stable governance.

iii) To maintain our useful value systems

iv) To protect our country from cultural deculturalization through globalization.

v) To maintain our cultural heritage.

vi) To create a sense of nationhood and promote cohesion in the daily life of Tanzania

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Ways or actions to be taken against negative aspects of our socio-cultural

Ways or actions to be taken against negative aspects of our socio-cultural

• In brief the following measures should be undertaken

• To educate the people on the impacts of negative aspect of cultural value.

• Improving women access to resources such as land cattle and forms of property.

• Equal participation in political matter. This will enable women to participate in decision making in various.

• The government should enact strict laws for those who entertain negative aspect of cultural value.

• The community should be aware of all things which cause gender inequality

• Promotion and preservation of our worthy cultural values, Is a combination of efforts made by people under their government to enhance growth and existence of the national culture which has to be practiced in the nation.

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What are the Customs and cultural practices that lead to spread of HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI'S).

Customs and cultural practices that lead to spread of HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI'S).

• HIV stand for human immunity deficiency virus and aids stand for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Getting HIV infection leads to weakening of immunity system. This makes a person with HIV vulnerable to illness HIV/AIDS is a killer disease which has no cure or vaccine.

The following are customs and cultural practices that lead to spread of HIV/AIDS and STI’S

• Female genital mutilation; (Women circumcision) can lead to the spread of HIV if the instrument used are not sterilized and are used by the group being circumcised. Most of the instrument used is knives razor blades pair of scissor and any other sharp tool. Some tribes do out tribal marks on bodies of. Some kinds claiming that they want to shed off dirty bloods. Since the instrumental used are not sterilized this practice can lead spread of HIV/AIDS to the kids.

• Inheritance of widows; May contract or spread HIV from or to man who inherit them.

• Traditional dance; Certain traditional dances are accompanied by alcohol drinking which always tend to draw men and women into sexual intercourse.

• Use of traditional midwives; who are not well trained may lead to the spread of HIV/AIDS to both mother and the newly born baby due to using of unsterilized instruments.

• Polygamist; May also be a potential cause of HIV/AIDS. Once one the of them gets HIV/AIDS all will also get.

• Early and forced marriages; can create problems when someone is forced to be married to a certain man and woman who has HIV/AIDS.

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What are the strategies for women empowerment

The strategies for women empowerment

• Women empowerment can be improved if the following things are considered;

• Improving and increasing education opportunities to women .lf education opportunities will improved to women, development will be achieved in the poor countries like Tanzania and the slogan that say “You educated a women you educated the whole society" will practically observed.

• Improving access to the resource such as land, the situation which has been to difficult for quite a long time in many societies. This will help women to have right to inherit resource such as land.

• To allow women to establish various social organization. This will help them to have a collective barraging power for their deprived rights. Through these organizations, women can ask for assistance from the government or donors in order to enable them open various project.

• The government should commit itself to the prohibition of all cultural practices and custom that oppress women such as female genital mutilation, forced and early marriages etc.

• The government to ensure that women receive equal opportunities as men in all social, political, economic issues.

• To establish special programmers for improving life standard of the women especially in rural area

• To educate men to abandon the idea that they are created superior to women.

• Improve rural technology this will help to provide women with modern working facilities. For example the use of solar and biogas energy will free women from dependence on firewood which usually contribute to environment destruction through cutting tree.

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What are the Major effects of gender discrimination ?

Major effects of gender discrimination

• There is unequal distribution of power in all sphere of life such in political, economic, social sector

• Women continue to be left out in various area of development.

• Women continue to face violence and aggression as they do not have any economic power base to support themselves. As result, majority of women live in extreme poverty.

• Enrollment of girls and women in various learning institution has not been keeping up the same pace with that of boys and men that is boy and men are many than girl and women in such institutions.

• Women are badly affected by beliefs in witchcraft, poor nutrition and ignorance about health care.

• Unequal distribution of property and wealth between men and women has totally ignored women contribution this economic harassment.

• Women are adversely affected by both early and forced marriages.

• Teaching of initiation which very often urge girls to be submissive to their future husband (boy) and men in general have greatly made girly and women passive to take part in various issues.

• Many women are ignorant of laws and procedure of claiming for their right. This problem has contributed to their discrimination and violence in different areas.

• There are very few women in managerial and decision making level .For example the number of woman in the parliament of Tanzania is one-third that of men

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What are the Institutions which perpetuate gender discrimination

Institutions which perpetuate gender discrimination

1. The family

At the family level there is belief that boys will propagate lineage and support the family, while girls have to get married. Due to this belief many families prefer to educate boy spend more money on them at the expense of the girls, when a choice has to be made between the two. As a result girls have been marginalized in may issues.

2. Religious institution

Some religious doctrine and leader reference to the Quran or Bible on the submissive nature of women tend to deny them of the opportunities to hold position of the leadership and decision making in various levels, For instance in some mosques and to churches decision made by men usually discriminate women.

3. Learning institution

In these institutions it is common practice to find that boys at re offered science subject and mathematics while girl are forced to study subject such as homes than e economic subject and typing. More intelligent than girls, hence, girls are not encouraged to work hard.

4. Traditional initiation institutions

Play a major role in perpetuating gender discrimination. Girl who have undergone initiation ceremonies become passive in school. This is because the traditional counsel and elder who initiate girls have always put more emphasis on submissiveness of women to men. Because of that women are therefore do not fully take part in decision making at home and in other placed.

5. Work places

The socialization process in the community has effects on the gender division of labour between men and women. At work placed, employment of men is given more emphases in other places.

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Which are the Customs which lead to gender discrimination ?

Customs which lead to gender discrimination;

Are those which have their origin from the patriarchal societies

• Patriarchal societies are those societies which are organized and run by men; In these societies it is only men who are the decision maker and holder of the power over the women and resources. Patriarchal systems are common in many African societies including those of Tanzania. The system are now world wide strongly discourage because they favor males over females, and thus perpetuate gender discrimination

• Exclusion of women from decision making; In many patriarchal societies there has always been a common practices to exclude women from making decision on important social, economic, political issues right from the family level to national level. This practices has greatly affected women as most of the decision made by men lead to favor them at the expense of women.

• Paying of bride; The practices of paying bride price to the parents of the girl to be married is considered by men as the condition for buying that girl/ women. Hence the fulfilling of this condition means that the women are put under the control of that mantises.

• Denial of the right to property; In many societies women and girls are not allowed to own property or to inherit any property after the death of their of their husband or parents .As a result women and girl are left with no economic base, hence became dependents to men.

• Initiation ceremonies; Include "Jando" and “Unyango” for men and women .In these ceremonies base the teachings provided to boy are quite different from those given to girls. For example among other things taught to boys one of them is to educate them how to exhibit masculine behavior such as dominance, confidence, strength, competition and rationally while girls and women are taught to exhibit feminine behavior such as submission, caring nurturing, sensitivity and emotionally. As a result, these behavior are used to justify men holing most power position and women reaming in subordinate position

• Habit of food eating; In some tribe, women are forbidden form eating certain types of food. They are not allowed to eat chicken meat, eggs, liver etc, when they are pregnant. This was due to the fear, that the child to be born will grow too big to born in in a normal way .The effect of this was that, the health of the pregnant women and eventually that of the expected baby was affected. Institution which perpetuate gender discrimination.

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What are the most outstanding gender concept among other ?

The most outstanding gender concept among other includes the following;

• Gender discrimination; It is the situation in which one kind of the sex in the society is denied of its right and opportunities simply because of belong to that sex category.

• Gender oppression; It is the situation whereby a certain sexual category is treated harshly or oppressed simply because it belong to that category for example giving heavy tasks and depriving of their important social needs.

• Gender gap; It is an inequality in job accessibility between two different sexes. Culturally, some societies give men the first priority to job opportunities than women. This situation prevails in both public and private sector in many developing countries, including Tanzania where whereby most attractive and highly paying job are occupied by men.

• Gender inequality; Is a situation whereby a certain kind of sex in a society is given priority in all aspect of life at the expense of another sex. For example inmost African societies women are marginalized in all sphere of life while men are favored.

• Gender equity; This is the principle of fairness and justice that advocate gender equality such as principle include making of laws which prevent men from undermining and denying them of their rights.

• Gender equality; This refers to a situation whereby there is no kind of practice which undermines a certain sex. It is the situation whereby there is equal treatment of both male and female in all aspects of their lives.

• Gender analysis; It is the systematic efforts to identify, analyze, document and understand the roles of men and women within a given context. It is about who does what, who has access to and control over what, benefits from what etc.

• Gender sensitive planning; It is the planning that considers both women and men in term of needs. These needs are planned equally. Generally, there are has been some effort for discouraging bad cultural practices that undermine women worldwide. Due to these efforts, the people consciousness about gender equality have been raised hence, made to see the importance of analyzing gender, formulation principle of enhancing gender equality and waged war against the multicultural practices such as child labour and female Genital Mutilation.

• Gender Mainstreaming; This refers to ideas about a given gender that are considered ordinary or normal, hence, accepted by most people in societies. It is a global strategy for promoting gender equality. Mainstreaming involves insuring that gender perspectives and attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities, policy development, research resource allocation, planning implementation and monitoring of programmers and project.

• Gender stereo typing; This refer to people perception and attitudes create by the socialization institution

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The impacts of negative aspects of Cultural values

IMPACTS OF NEGATIVE ASPECT OF CULTURAL VALUE

Female genital mutilation this can lead to various effects such as;

• Prolonged bleeding during and after the mutilation.

• Disturbance of the natural vaginal elasticity during delivery due to the scar left after mutilation

• Reduction of sexual pleasure during sexual intercourse

• Spread of sexually Transmitted infection because the instrument used are not sterilized and are used by the whole group being circumcised

• Death because of excessive bleeding and STI’S Such as AIDS/HIV

Gender biases can lead to;

• Unequal distribution of powers in a community

• Women being left out in areas of development

• Lack of spirit of competition hence poor performance

• Few women in managerial and decision making levels

• Violence and aggression.

Belief and practices of witchcraft can lead to;

• Transmission of STI'S

• Despise modern health services

• Family conflict.

• Unnecessary death

Inheritance of spouse (widow) can lead to;

• Contact of STI'S

• Conflicts

Early marriages can lead to;

• Toxemia

• Long difficult labour

• Blocked birth which may damage the bladder, vagina and womb

• Deaths

Polygamy can lead to;

• Rapid population increase

• Transition of STI'S

• Death

• Street dwellers.

Forced marriage may lead to;

• Family conflicts

• Contracting of STI'S

Bride price can lead to;

• Violation of sexual human rights

Forced marriage with its accompanied impact

• Domestic violence

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What are the positive and negative aspects of our cultural values ?

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ASPECT OF OUR CULTURAL VALUES

Positive aspects

1) Respect and hospitality; Refer to polite behavior that a person has towards other especially those he/she thinks are older or important to him/ her. For example in many societies the children are taught various way through which they should show respect. Those include greeting, receiving and handling property. How to talk to the elder etc. Through these way children grow up knowing how well they can behave in their families and community at large.

2) Caring for other people and property; Among the people who may need special care in the society are children, old people, disabled, the sick people and other people with special problem. It is a positive cultural value to help people belonging to the mentioned group to get various services because they are the most disadvantages.

3) Proper dressing; As one of the important cultural value proper dressing helps to maintain ones personality. It makes people look smart and acceptable to other member of the society. Currently in many societies there is an increase of parent outcry over the whole issue of indecent dressing among the youth. This problem is associated with the ongoing globalization process which among other things contribute to the decline in moral is the societies and more particular to the youth.

4) Hard working; This is another positive cultural value, certainly because through hardworking the people in the societies are able to produce more and better quality goods and service for the individual and national development.

5) Accountability and transparency; Refer to a situation in which a person is held responsible for a certain task assigned to him/her and she /he may be expected to give satisfactory explanations concerning that task if there is any to need so. Transparency for that matter it means openness or without secret. Accountability and transparency are therefore important cultural value that should be promoted by the society.0nce these are observed the society expectation and wishes can be easily met.

6) Honest; This refer to a state of person being fair and trustful. It is another important cultural value that any society is supported to impart to its member .If this value is successfully imparted to the society member the immoral practices such as corruption, theft, embezzlement of public found etc. can be minimized.

7) Patriotism; This refers to a situation in which one loved his/ her country. Patriotism is an important cultural aspect since it enables the member of a given country to participate fully in the development activities in their country. Because of the love for their country people can even be ready to die for it.

8) Co-operation or participation in various social activities; Is important culture value because it helps to create unity and increase strength towards accomplishment of certain task for the sake of attaining common goals in the society.




Negative Aspects

• Female Genital mutilation; According to the world Health organization is define as all procedure that involve partial or total removal of the external genitalia or other intentional mutilation of the female genital organs, whether for cultural or any other non therapeutic reason.

• In inheritance of widows; This is practice of taking a woman (widow) after the death of her husband. This act has negative effective because it can lead to the contracting of the HIV/AIDS if one of the partners is a victim of HIV/AIDS. This act is also a violation of human right because it turns the woman as object of pleasure and sometimes the property of the inherited widow are taken by the new husband and the humans left with nothing.

• Early and forced marriage; Early marriage is the situation where by a person gets married while he/she is below the legally acceptable age for having marriage i.e below 18 years for a boy, 15 years for a girl. Forced marriage refers to a situation in which a boy or girl is being forced by parents or relatives to get marriage to a person he/she don’t want. This practices is more common to girls than boys. Both early and forced marriages have contributed to several negative effects including marital conflicts which in turn lead to separation and divorce hence leads to an increase of street children.

• Polygamism; this is the situation whereby on man get married to many wives. This practice can also leads to having many children that parents may fails to take care of them thus end up being street children.

• Belief in witchcraft; Is common among some illiterate societies has greatly contributed to various negative effects. The notable effect include the killing of the innocent people include the old women with red eyes due to some allegation that they are the one ones who bewitch other people. This practice is very common in area like Shinyanga and Mwanza in Tanzania.

• The killing of twins and handicapped people, in some tradition societies twins and other people with handicaps such as albino were being killed due to the belief that having such as people in the family or societies was a curse from the God and if such people are left the society will be facing misfortunes. However, in recent years the killing of the albinos has been associated with the belief that some of their body organs bring fortunes to people engaging in various activities such as business, especially in the mining and commercial sector. This belief has contributed much to the killing of albinos in different part of our country.

• Paying of bride price; Is payment made to the parent of daughter or women who is to be marriage by the person or the family of man who want to marry. The paying of bride price has led to misconception that the married women has been bought just like any other items. As a result of this misconception same man in some societies tend to mistreat their wives.

• Food taboos; These refer to practices where by women and girls are restricted or forbidden from taking same kind of food varieties especially those, which are delicious and nutritious such as eggs, liver. Chickens etc. These practices may have negative effects on omen health.

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What are the importance of each Element of Culture ?

THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

1) Language

Is an important in element of culture because it is used as a medium of communication in the society. It can also serve as an identify of a given society in particular or nation in general. For example Kiswahili language in Tanzania.

2) Traditions

Some tradition such as marriages and burial ceremonies play a key role of uniting people together when the meet to conduct or cerebrating the event.

3) Norms

Are social rule that guide behavior they specify the behavior that is appropriate or not in a given situation, norms a given as guideline on how we should act or not act not act on our daily activities.

4) Value

Help society to adopt acceptable behavior shape and individual personalities. A decent dressing for instance, can mark some one look smart and presentable in a certain occasion like wedding ceremony.

5) Ideology

Is important because it enables that society to explain, justify and order several existential condition which would otherwise prove impossible to explain .It also serves as mean for self identification for individual and group that adhere to it.

6) Art and creative

Are used by the people to express their feeling or attitude toward a certain events. The feeling can be expressed through such things like song, drama, picture e.t.c,. Other forms of arts such as painting and drawing are used for decorations.

7) Custom

Used by different societies are very important to the members of that particular society. Among other things are used to represent various object and events to the people.

8) Recreation

Provide household with necessary material such as furniture, pots, which are daily, also some of them can be sold to earn people income

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What are ten (10) elements of Culture ?

ELEMENT OF CULTURE

The following are the element of culture;



Cooperation

Language

Law

Customs

Tradition

Ideology

Recreation

Art and creation

Norms

Fashion




There are ten element of culture

i) Cooperation

These elements manifest themselves in physical and social bond of the society in various activities. It gives chances for members to learn and do things together in community e.g. harvesting, initiation ceremonies

ii) Norms and laws

Law is a deliberately from adopted rules of behavior that are enforced by spend authority.

Are social rules that guide behavior. They specify the behavior that is appropriate or not in a given society. Norms give as guideline an hour we should act so that we can get with our daily activity. Norms have to categories Mores and Folkways.

Mores- Are those norms which society considers them to be of great Moral significance. Those who violate them are defined as sinful, evil, wicked and offender. The punishment to them is various including death, imprisonment torture e.c.t. Such more that may lead to harsh punishment are also called taboos e.g. murder, treason, rape, theft e.c.t.

Folkways- these are customary and habitual ways by which the members of a group do things. Folkways are considered as less important norms in which the violators of them get mild punishment. Example of the common folkways is time for appointment, greetings and washing clothes.

iii) Arts and crafts

As elements of culture arts are expression, which reflect feelings attitude and the level of development of a given society as struggling for existence and survival in a particular environment. These achievements could either be bound, political or economic ones.

Craft- Refers to the objects fashioned or created and used by a particular society example of craft include furniture, clay pots, baskets, sculptures, graphics and many others. Crafts can also reflect the cultural values and technology of the concerned society.

iv) Recreation

Reaction means relaxing and amusing work makes the body and mind to get tired so that mean med a roast. E.g. To participates in sports and games or dance hand: of show ground where sports and games are formed.

v) Ideology

Is a systematized and interconnected set of ideas about the social- economic and political organization of society as a whole. It contains ideals, ends purposes that a society should pursue. Ideology lay down the principle and condition to be followed by given society.

vi) Tradition

Traditions resemble custom they are experienced of the past are inherited by a society and they are unchangeable. Examples Marriage, funeral ceremonies, family care and courtship, sport and game.

vii) Language

Is a socially structured system of sound patterns, written words or signs with specific and arbitrary meaning used by a society for communication. It has a major role of creating interaction between and among people in short it binds the separate human lives together. Language is the most distinctive and complex achievement of human beings it is used to express physical and spiritual wishes.

viii) Customs

Customs these are pattern of habit, transmitted from one generation to another generation such customs include foods, clothes, shelter, argument, education, worship, names, greeting, love another generation such customs include foods, clothes, shelter, argument, education, worship, names, greeting, love and beauty obedience.

ix) Values

Is abstract idea of what is described correct and good that most member of a society share. They are conceptions or standards by which members of a society evaluate people, objects and events as to the relative worth, merit, beauty or morality. Value is used by the member of society to distinguish the desirable from the undesirable, what is good and bad the beautiful from the ugly.

x) Fashion

Are highly passing pattern of behavior fashion allows many change in norms Example Arts dressing etc.

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What are the two aspects of culture ?

ASPECT OF CULTURE



Culture consists of two main aspects;


·         Material culture
·         Intellectual culture/ non material culture

1. MATERIAL CULTURE
Material culture refers to tangible or physical artifacts (objects) made by human being. They include such things like spears, cooking pots, houses, coins, computer, stools, sofa sets and many others. These cultural objects reflect the nature of the society in which they were made. Material culture shows the extent to which man has achieved in mastering the nature. Such achievement include the level reached in the production of the instruments of labour, the technical skills developed, the scientific organization of labour, the availability of everyday needs of human and many others achievements.



2. INTELLECTUAL CULTURE/NON-MATERIAL CULTURE
Non - material culture: These are intangible or abstract creations of human society. They include such things like values, beliefs, symbols, norms, language and institutional arrangements.

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The meaning and importance of Culture

What is culture?

Culture is the total way of life in a given society.

Is a phenomenon that is practiced by all societies in the world. As a universal phenomenon it has bees held as a mankind asset which un-holds and perpetuates his time announced virtues. Culture links the past and present and synthesize man achievement and as nation.




Culture can be defined as a total way of life of particular society in a given time and environment as a total way of life it embraces all that has been created by man excluding all that has been given to him by nature. Therefore it includes thing like art and craft, language, education, politics, beliefs, technology, symbol, value, norms, customs, tradition and many others.

Culture is acquired or absorbed by man through living and participate in the cultural life of his group and changed by contact which outside cultures or inspiration from within.




IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE

• The notable importance of culture include the following;

• First, through culture a society passes on the knowledge, skill and wisdom from the elders to the young generation. Culture for that matter is used as a medium of bringing up the young to become respectable member of their society. Such knowledge and skill are passed on to the young generation through various cultural activities such as initiation ceremonies.

• Another importance of culture is that teaches the youth about various social values such as language, taboos and beliefs of the societies. It can also inculcate political and economic values and beliefs of the societies. It can also inculcates political and economic values of the society

• Third importance of culture is that, it serves as an identity of a particular society. Culture helps one society to be easily identified from other societies, or a nation from other nation. For example people from Tanzania can easily be identified from other people of East Africa simply because of the fluent speaking of Kiswahili language when compared with people from Kenya and Uganda. Maasai people can be identified from other people just because of their style of dressing known as "LUBEGA" and the way they plait or cut hairs which is quite different from other societies.

• Fourthly, culture is importance because it helps to promote unity among the people. It binds people together as one society or nation. This becomes possible because of the same culture value that the member of the particular society share together such value includes things like language, taboos, customs etc.

• The fifth importance of culture is that it exposes the younger to tasks similar those of their elders. This is achieved through such things initiation ceremonies where both the girl and the boys are given special training concerning with proper morals of their societies. Another place where the young ones learn various tasks similar to that of their elder is in the family. Family as the first institution of socialism play a significant role in educating the young ones about various task similar to those of their family member and their society in general.

• Through work of art culture can serve as a means of providing people with enjoyment or entertainment. For examples various kinds of tradition dances, music, sport and games etc. are used for entertainment people after long period of work or passing through hard or difficulties such as war, hunger etc. Cultural traditional dances, music and game are also used to entertain people during various ceremonies such as wedding birthday and many others.

• Lastly, culture equips the young people with insightful knowledge concerning with bad and good cultural practices. This help to refrain them from bad cultural that might have a bad impact to them.

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Why African Resistance against the imposition of colonialism Failed?

Why African Resistance Failed?

• It is true that many societies resisted against Europeans invaders but most of those resistance failed and African were defeated. The failure of Africans reactions was associated with the numbers of factors such as;

• Disunity among the African rulers. The Africans failed to unite together to fight for their enemy. Example in West Africa, Tanganyika, Angola, Namibia and Central Africa.

• Internal political factions in some Africa states contributed towards the defeat. Due to the disarray of many African states there was no time for cohesion to be against the enemy.

• Military and modern technology superiority of Europeans. Due to industrial revolution in Europe they were able to manufacture superior firearms which were used during the war against the Africans who most of them were using poor weapons.

• A disciplined and well-organized army helped to defeat African. The colonial armies were better trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics.

• The Europeans wanted to maintain and preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly. 

• Instability and public misery of Africans. Most of Africans were fought with bitterness which culminate into greater devastation, villages were burnt, farmland destroyed and animals looted. This ended up with gross loss of property, fear and famine.

• Religious division created serious problems for African unity. Religious disunity poisoned the cohesion of Africans. E.g. antagonism existed between Tijaniyya and Quidirrija brother in Algeria facilitated failure of resistance against the French.

• The unpopularity of some African leaders to their subjects led European victory.

• Natural calamities such as famine, drought and epidemic made it difficult for Africans to maintain stiff resistance.

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What are the Significance of the Early african Resistances

Significance of the Early Resistances.

i. Primary resistances helped to shape the environment of later African politics because of their impacts upon the thinking and action of the colonial authorities. The formation of TANU in Tanganyika had connection with Maji Maji and other associations.

ii. Primary resistances brought about the collapse of the commercial companies, which were at first employed by the German and British to open East Africa spheres of influence. So this forced the two governments to take direct responsibility.

iii. Primary resistances helped to change the early European attitudes of superiority. The thinking of administrators and settlers especially in Tanganyika and Southern Rhodesia after Maji Maji and Shona and Ndebele rising of 1896-1897, were dominated by fear of the repetition of such horrible outbreaks.

iv. Primary resistances showed Europeans that Africans were not willing to be colonized by Europeans. They wanted to remain' with their traditional ways of living.

v. Primary resistances displayed African grievances to the Europeans, e.g. Land alienation, forced cultivation, taxation, and low wages.

vi. Primary resistances forced Europeans to change their methods of ruling Africans. For example, in Tanganyika after the Maji Maji war the Germans made changes in their way of ruling including land ownership, taxation, whipping people in public etc.

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Why Ethiopia was not colonized

WHY ETHIOPIA ESCAPED COLONIALISM 

• Ethiopia was the only country in Africa that escaped colonialism. By 19th century all African nations had been dominated by the colonialists save Ethiopia there are various reasons that explain why Ethiopia managed to escape colonialism, these include the following forces; 

• The defeat of Italy in the battle of Adowa in 1896 made other European countries to fear to colonize Ethiopia; they thought that they might be defeated like Italy.

• The existence of powerful Emperors like emperor Theodore who once proposed to marry the queen of England, Emperor Yahannes 1867-1876, Emperor Menelik, these powerful leaders consolidated Ethiopia and made it strong enough to be colonized.

• The existence of Ahamaric language which promoted solidarity and unity within the Ethiopian society that made it solid able enough to resist the European powers from colonizing her.

• Poor geographical position and bad climatic condition such as- infertile soils; rocky lands and mountains of Ethiopia discouraged many Europeans to colonize it.

• Accessibility the modern weapons from Europe. After the Brussels treaty of 1890 in Belgium, Ethiopia managed to get more weapons from Europe to defend her self.

• The military strategic position of Ethiopia she is a mountainous country which could strategically able to defend her self from any intruder.

• The existence of Christianity ever since even before the advent of colonialist in Africa. Christianity has been adopted as a state religion; it brought awareness, civilization and unity among the Ethiopians which made it impossible to be colonized easily.

• Divisions among European powers during the colonization of Africa, every capitalist country was fighting alone to get more colonies, emperor Menelik used such chance to defend his country.

• The weakness of Italian army. Italy had just unified was not strong enough, this enabled Ethiopia to defeat her at the battle of Adowa in 1896.

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What are the effects of Nama and Herero uprising of 1904-1907

The Effects of Nama and Herero uprising

i. After the uprising, the Nama and Herero lost their cattle and land to Germans. They became very poor and lived in severe life that could not enable to live in conducive environment and good life.

ii. The chief township in Namibia was officially abolished by German government.

iii. Namibia became a Germans colony and German administration continued to be strong. For this reason, the Nama and Herero uprising did not materialize and had very minimal effect compared to that of Majimaji in Tanganyika.

iv. The African communities, such as Herero lost their life, only 16,000 Herero survived out of previous population on 80,000, whereas only 9800 Nama were alive in 1911, compared to 20,000 people who lived in 1892.

v. There was an increasing number of Germans in Namibia. For example up to 1903 the number of German was about 4,640 but after the war the number increased to 14,840 in 1913.

vi. After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where Africans women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour.




After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where African women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour. The Nama-Herero uprising went on until the end of 1905 when the Nama chief Witbooi was killed. Since then the Nama unity began to decline gradually. The Nama leadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon cooper, who continued the resistance until 1907 though the German reasserted their control. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero independence was destroyed by the German forces. They confiscated their cattle and deposed all their chiefs. African communities which survived were subordinated, forced to work in German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African communities up to the period of the First

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what are the Meaning and the Causes of Nama and Herero uprising of 1904-1907

NAMA AND HERERO UPRISING IN NAMIBIA (1904-1907)




The German occupation and imposition of its colonial rule in Namibia met with a limited success in the 1880’s and 1890’s. The region was inhabited by three main ethnic groups, the first and second group comprised Bantu people of Ambo and Herero who engaged in crop cultivation and livestock keeping. The other group comprised the Nama who were Hottentots and engaged in Pastoralism. Both groups depended on land for cultivation and pasture, The history of Namibia in the nineteenth century was characterized by intense conflicts between the Nama and Herero who angered in Pastoralism and hunting. After the arrival of Europeans, the conflict was intensified since this foreigner' s used the rivalry for their benefit. The Herero welcomed Germans who offered them a treaty of-protection and proposed to help them against the Nama. But this German and Herero alliance was opposed by the Nama leader Hedrick Witbooi since he understood the nature and real aims of Germans.




Chief Hedrick Witbooi realized that the Herero Chief could become just a mere subordinate chief under the German government. The Nama and Herero rivalry threatened the German missionaries. Later on, in 1884, the Germans declared a protectorate over Namibia; they also occupied the region effectively. The German government introduced the settler policy between 1884 and 1904, which affected both the Nama, and Herero hence accumulated a lot of grievances which resulted into uprising.




Causes of Nama and Herero uprising

i. Cattle raiding that were done frequently by the German traders and settlers. As cattle was among of the treasured commodity among the Nama and Herero communities, robbing of cattle threatening the economic interest of African commodities.

ii. The imposition of forced labour in 1896. German wanted labour to work in plantations and in construction of infrastructures such as roads, railways as well as public buildings. The German government used force to obtained laborers which discontented the Africans; thus decided to take up arms and against the Germans.

iii. Land alienation. This includes grabbing of the best grazing land in the central plateau of Namibia. German government reserved the land for settler settlement which in turn created hostility between African communities and Germans.

iv. Imposition of taxes. The German imposed tax that had to be paid by Africans, they began to demand tax in 1896 and in order to make effective collection of taxes they use force which led Africans to resist by taking up arms against the Germans.

v. The destruction of traditional authority, after they had established their control over Namibia, Germans did not pay attention to the region. For example they imposed some policies without consulting some traditional chiefs from Africans.

vi. Harassment to the Herero indebted people by German following the credit ordinance of 1903 that all debts had to be collected in one year time, after which the debt would be invalid.

vii. The outbreak of rinder pest diseases, which killed about 90% of Nama and Herero’s cattle in 1903. This affected their economy many sold their land to German settler in order to sustain their life. But the rinder pests diseases was interpreted by religious leaders punishment from God since the Nama and Herero cooperated by the whites, thus the people had to resist against the German so as to get rid of these misfortunes.

viii. The German control over religious beliefs. The Nama believed on their traditional religions and trusted their religious leaders, but when their beliefs were threatened by Germans, chiefs organized and motivated his subjects to resists against the German.

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What are the Effects of the Shona and Ndebele ( Chimulenga) Uprising of 1896-1897

The Effects of the Shona and Ndebele Uprising of 1896-1897

• The Chimurenga warriors were taught bitter lesson and many of them died during the confrontation.

• The BSAC administration incorporated and expropriated more fertile land and cattle as war indemnity.

• The company administration received much criticism from the colonial office for mistreatments of the natives. Then Cecil Rhodes guaranteed to make changes in governing the Matebeleland.

• The Ndebele were redistributed new lands in the lowlands where they lived happily unperturbed by the company and European mistreatment.

• The Ndebele Indunas were considered and employed in various administrative positions under the BSAC administration.

• Most of the educated Ndebele were given responsibilities as administrators in Mashonaland.

• Mashonaland and Matebeleland were allocated to Most European settlers created their settlement in the fertile land that formerly belonged to Shona and Ndebele.

• Many Africans adopted Christianity due to the inability of Mwari cult and the Chanimuka (medium spirit) to defeat the Whiteman.

• Because of the failure in war the Mwari cult leaders could no longer command popularity in the eyes of a rising number of people abandoning traditional religion and adopting Christianity.

• The confrontations witnessed the unification of traditional foes against the shared enemy, a cohesion that was exploited well.

• The Ndebele's claims were recognized and were given worthy treatments from the whites, because the Ndebele looked for peace while the Shona persisted in war.

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What is the Meaning and Causes of the uprising of the Mashona and matebele or chimulenga war in zimbabwe 1896 - 1897

THE MASHONA-MATEBELE (CHIMULENGA) UPRISING IN ZIMBABWE (1896-1897)




The whites created their settlement in Mashonaland in 1890. They thought that the Shona might thank the whites and were grateful to them since they could protect them against their traditional rivals, the Ndebele. But the matter was not so. The whites had misconceptions about the Ndebele, for they thought that with the fall of Lobengula, the son of Mzilikazi, the Ndebele power was completely dwarfed and could not stage war. As a result, in 1896, the whites were caught by surprise, for there was a more or less joint uprising between the Shona and Ndebele. In April 1896, the Matebele started a war that spread like summer fire to the Mashona tribe. In June of the same year, the war broke out in Mashonaland. The war was motivated by outstanding political, social, and economic dissatisfactions against the white men.




The Causes of the uprising.

• Loss of land. The white alienated the better and fertile land of the Mashona. On the other hand, the Ndebele were pushed into the reserves, which had water shortage, this caused dissatisfaction and unrests hence people took up arms to resist this situation.

• Forced Labour. Africans in both Matebele and Mashona were forced to supply labour to the colonial settles. All able bodied men had to work regardless of their former status in the societies and they were recruited by armed force.

• Harsh treatment. The colonialists treated the Mashona and Matebele people harshly. The elderly people were flogged and killed in public, and the conditions in the mines were deplorable.

• Taxation policies. In 1894, Hut tax was introduced; some of the Shona chiefs and their people refused new laws introduced by the colonial administration as well as British ways of collecting taxes. Those who failed to pay tax were persecuted and jailed without trial.

• Low wages. Africans who were forced to work in mines and whites farms were paid lowly although they worked for long hours and heavy works.

• The abolition of Induna age regiments among the Matebele. The Matebele were made to suffer socially and psychologically. Indunas were deprived of their power, importance and position.

• Interference in the Shona trade. The desire of British South Africa Company to control trade in the Mashona land contributed to the uprising.

• Desire for their lost independence. The Ndebele people resisted in order to regain their post independence, none of the Induna was appointed in any responsible administrative position.

• Missionaries disregarded the traditional and customs of the Shona and Ndebele people. In Matebele land, the missionaries wanted the Ndebele to change their religions based on Mwari cult.

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Reasons for why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated.

Why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated? 

(i) Anglo–French conspiracy. Between 1889 and 1890 Samori had reached an agreement with the British to supply arms to Samori’s armies up to 1896. But in 1896 the British breached the treaty by occupying Sierra Leone thus blocking Samori’s access to arms supplies. In the same year British forced occupied the Gold Coast making it impossible for Samori to form a military alliance with Ashanti.

(ii) Shortage of military weapons. Surrounded by enemies, Samori doubled efforts to manufacture arms within his empire. However, these were not sufficient for the' ever-increasing war demands. In 1889 the French managed to defeat Samori's forces. Samori was captured and exiled to Gabon where he died two years later.

(iii) Disunity among rulers. The resisters were unable to unite together as their enemy was common. Samori sought alliance with Ahmed Seku of Tukola and Tieba of Sikasso with no success. In fact, these rulers even assisted the French in defeating Samori.

(iv) A disciplined and well-organized army helped to defeat Africans. The colonial armies were better-trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics. Hence the armies led by Samori Toure did not stand a chance. Thus the Africans were taught a lesson, that those "modern" societies with institutionalized war and professionalism in modern fighting techniques could never be defeated by warfare.

(v) The Europeans wanted to preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly.

(vi) Instability and public misery were also a major factor in defeat. The wars of resistance of Samori Toure were fought with bitterness which culminated into greater devastation. Villages were set on fire, farmlands destroyed animals looted. This ended up with loss of property, year and famine and stirred up local resistances.

(vii) Lack of support from communities. The non- Mandika communities and non- Muslims in the empire did not give him full support because they had been mistreated during his leadership. Some decided to support the French forces against him.

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Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for so long?

Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for so long?



(i) Strong army. Samori Toure had established strong army of approximately 12,000 men and about 90,000 reserves. He had a standby army, trained military men who could be taken in emergence, cases to help the permanent army.

(ii) Modern weapons. Samori Toure had excess to modern arms that he had acquired from the coastal traders' that he had been friend with them. Samori Toure had established friendship with the coastal traders for quite some time, lie also had military workshops which supplied him with weapons and repaired his defected weapons.

(iii) Samori Toure had a lot of wealth from trade in slaves, gold and colanuts, which was utilized in rewarding his workers and soldiers for their services.

(iv) Some of the Samori soldiers had served in the French army where they had acquired modern military techniques and so were able to respond effectively to the invaders. These soldiers passed those skills to the rest of the Army.

(v) He was determined to maintain and preserve his independence in the eyes of Europeans advance. This motivated him to resist for a long time.

(vi) Samori Toure established state control of agriculture and markets to ensured regular food supply for the army. Availability of food to the soldiers encouraged them to fight for long time.

(vii) The use of guerrilla or commando tactics of surprise ambushes and right raids. This helped Samori Toure occasionally to win the war. The French soldiers found the Mandika people too difficult to control

(viii) He used scorched earth military technique such as burning villages and destroying crops in order to make the French starve when they reached the area.

(ix) Samori Toure got support from the Mandika people in national war of defense. This support helped Samori Toure to resist for a long time.

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Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898)?

Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898)?
(i) The French activities of selling arms to Samori's enemies, such as Tieba of Sikasso alarmed Samori Toure. The French' aimed at weakening the Mandika so as to acquire it smoothly.

(ii) Samori Toure was shocked by the failure of his plan of playing off the British against the French. He had signed an agreement with the British on non-interference in each other's sphere of influence. Unfortunately, the British refused to support Samori against the French.

(iii) Samori Toure wanted to protect the independence of his empire. The use of force by the French in acquiring colonies could not be tolerated by Samori Toure

(iv) The French wanted to conquer Mandika when Samori's empire had reached at its peak with military supremacy and economic prosperity. The French therefore threatened Samori's territorial expansion into areas which they claimed belonged to them.

(v) Samori wanted to safeguard trade. He was determined to, defend commercial centres and the trade routes and maintain regular supplies of firearms.

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What were the reactions to french invasion in West Africa

REACTION TO FRENCH INVASION IN WEST AFRICA




(i) Reaction to French invasion Senegambia

French military conquests in West Africa, were first directed against Senegambia during the rule of Mohmadou Lamine, and against Guinea then under Samori Toure. The major aim of the French was to capture the trading centers of Western Sudan and the strategic area between Upper Senegal and Niger. They had already built warehouses and fortresses along these rivers to control trade in palm oil, groundnuts, and gold from the interior. However, the power base of African ruling classes lay in the control of this trade. This was one of the factors of the conflict between the French imperialists forces and the African rulers.




The French employed a number of techniques to conquer the territory One of this was to- utilize existing local differences, or to initiate new conflicts between African ruling groups. To be able to conquer Senegambia, the French formed alliances with the empires of Tukulor under Sheikh Ahmaddu, Bandu Empire under Umar Penda and Khasso under Luku Sambala. In so doing the French managed to' conquer and subjugate the weaker states.




(ii) Reaction to French Invasion of Guinea

Samori Toure of Guinea illustrates for many people the courage and determination of African resistance to European conquest. Samori Toure was successful for sixteen years in preventing his own state from being colonized by the French. Although he was ultimately defeated, the duration of his resistance was in itself a victory, which can only be understood by looking back to the earlier period of his life.




Samori Toure was born into a Malinke family, the first child of a -farmer who had strongly family connections with the Dyula, the trading community of the Malinke people. The Dyula lived in the great commercial centers on the northern edge of the West African forest belt separating the inland regions from the Gulf of Guinea. They were also very famous in the commercial centers along the trans-Sahara trade routes such as Timbuktu, Taghaza and Walata. Commodities such as cloth, iron tools and salt were carried by the Dyula merchants and exchanged with forest products such as palm oil, kola nuts, and ivory. Firearms also occupied a very important position in-this trade.




At the age of eighteen he asked to be released from his duties on the farm and be allowed to join the Dyula. For about five years he built, up strong, business and made many contacts throughout the Western Sudan. This life was interrupted in 1852 when his mother 'was made captive by Soni Birama, the King of Bisandugu.Samori offered his services as a soldier to Soni Birama in return for his mother's freedom.




Samori's power and leadership attracted many followers and within a few years he found that he was strong enough to be independent of Soni Birama, He set out to control the whole of Malinke land and thus to maintain peace, law and order. He was joined by many minor leaders and supported, by his family.




By 1879 his territory had stretched from Sierra Leone to the Ivory Coast in the West from Bamako in the north to the Liberian borders in the south. His authority was based more on his military power than on his religious leadership. His arm was composed of young captives, soldiers trained mostly as foot soldiers-the infantry. His army could have at total of ten or twelve thousand fully equipped soldiers.




Samori determined to defend commercial centers and the trade routes, always sought to acquire and maintain regular supplies of firearms, ammunitions and horses for his army. He was helped by the Dyula merchants in this endeavour. The merchants obtained the firearms through trade with European merchants. Samori further maintained a group of skillful craftsmen who repaired and even made guns.




In 1882, French forces of occupation started advancing towards Bamako. They demanded that Samori should keep away from the large Bambara and Mandingo markets. Samori rejected the demand and managed to keep the French off up to 1890. From 1891 to 1898 Samori conducted guerrilla warfare. He organized an excellent system of military intelligence to spy on enemy troop movements.

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What are the effects or Impacts of Majimaji Resistance of 1905 - 1907

Impacts of Majimaji Resistance 

(i) The Majimaji resistance made Germans ruler to reform their administration so as to avoid, another uprising in Tanganyika. These reforms were made under Governor Lord Rothenberg. They also changed their attitudes towards Africans. Governor Rothenberg introduced some important measures to improve Africa services, like education and health, farming and communication system. He also rejected extra taxation of Africans and abolished corporal punishment; The Governor recognized traditional chiefs, stopped forced labour and began to punish German settlers who mistreated the African workers. 

 

(ii) It brought together many African communities such as Ngindo, Zaramo, Ngoni and Matumbi to resist against the European invaders

(iii) It led to the destruction of properties since the Germans used the scorched-earth policy which involved burning of villages and crops in all areas with African forces.

(iv) A large number of Africans lost their lives. It is estimated that between 75,000 and 120,000 Africans, including their leaders and soldiers, were killed by the German forces while other people died of diseases and starvation. A large part of the southern Tanganyika became depopulated

(v) The Majimaji resistance led to the emergence of severe famine since the German soldiers destroyed farms and granaries during the war. This period of famine was known as funga funga period among the people of southeastern Tanganyika.

(vi) The Majimaji resistance led to the displacement of many African families during the war. Due to fear and insecurity, many people escaped to different directions to look for other areas of settlement where they thought to be peaceful. The war also influenced family separation among the African communities.

(vii) The war laid the foundation for nationalism in Tanganyika, because after the uprising Africans learnt a lot and adopted a new method of resistance against colonial in Tanganyika and disregarded their ethnic differences.

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Why Africans defeated or failed in Majimaji War of 1905 - 1907

Causes for African Defeat 

(i) Africans employed poor weapons such as arrows, spears and outdated guns against their enemies who used superior automatic machines like machine guns. They also lacked fighting skills and were poorly organized as opposed to their counterpart, the Germans, who were well trained and organized.

(ii) The, Germans were supported in many ways, such as weapons and mercenary soldiers from Sudan, Germany, New Guinea, and Somalia. All these reinforced the Germans and led to emergence of large army, which could attack Africans strongly and effectively.

(iii) The Africans lacked military communication infrastructures. They failed to communicate between one ethnic group and another. Every ethnic group fought in isolation in different areas and their leaders had different motives and grievances.

(iv) Failure of magic water 'Majimaji' to turn German bullets into water and protect the African fighters. A large number of the warriors were killed during the war hence others lost faith over their religion.

(v) The Majimaji uprising covered a small area, hence failing to cooperate a number of African powerful communities, like the Nyamwezi and Hehe in the interior. These powerful communities could bring support to African forces.

(vi) The effect of scorched-earth policy employed by Germans. This policy involved destruction of African residences and destroying crops and property, thus famine caused deaths among –the African fighters since many of them were starving.

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What is the meaning and causes of Majimaji resistance of 1905 - 1907

MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE (1905- 1907)

It is not possible to recognize any simple pattern in African resistance to European rule. Samori fought a long defensive battle against the French. Lobengula saw the futility of military resistance. People such as Nandi reacted immediately in violent manner to the British advance. Other groups, having failed to put up much of a resistance at first; were persuaded to rebel against the European later. Often a rekindling of traditional religious belief was combined with armed rebellion. An example of such a revolt was the Maji-Maji Rising of 1905-1907 in Tanzania.




The Majimaji resistance broke out in the southern Tanganyika against the German control. This is a large and popular African uprising in Africa. The term "Majimaji" is derived from Swahili word "Maji" which -means water. Majimaji was magic water drawn from river Rufiji and mixed up with maize and millet flour after mixing up the water was thrown on the various fighters so as to protect them from German bullets in war, The leader of the Maji maji uprising was known as Kinjekitile Ngware, who lived at Ngarambe in Southern Tanganyika. He organized his followers 'and began to fight in July 1905, the Matumbi of Nandete in Rufiji were the first to take up arms.




Majimaji uprising was highly mobilized and its followers possessed courage as well as determination against the German rule in Tanganyika. It took a wide coverage' and speeded very fast from Matumbi of Nandele in Rufiji to other areas like Uluguru, Masasi, the Makonde plateau, Songea, the Kilombero Valley, North Dar es Salaam and the Mahenge plateau. In these areas African communities such as Zaramo, Ngoni, Bena, Mwera, Ngindo, Pogoro, Mbunga, Ndendeule and Luguru united together to fight against German rule.




Causes of Majimaji Resistance
(i) The forced cotton growing that was ordered by the German government in 1902. The Akidas were ordered by the governor to establish cotton plots where African communities of southern Tanzania had to work with little pay or provide a free labour, they also worked under inhuman. This situation dissatisfied the people and decided to take up arms against Germans.

(ii) Forced labour was another African grievance. Africans were forced to work on railway construction as well as settler farms. Africans were humiliated by the Germans and friends while working. Generally, the colonial treatment towards Africans was inhuman.

(iii) The imposition of heavy taxes and fines on Africans by he Germans, the taxes were unfair and had to be paid in the form of money. For example, the tax imposed for hut was to be paid in form of money for about three rupees. But Africans did not have money; the only way of getting money was through selling labour power to the Germans to earn money to pay different taxes imposed. The collection of tax aimed at raising the revenue for the colonial administration but this system was new to the Africans. They were also discontented because the colonialist used their land for production while at the same time forced them to pay taxes.

(iv) The Germans disregarded African traditional beliefs and practices, such as dances and circumcision. They overlooked the African religious leaders and condemned sacred places as the areas of African witchcraft. The disruption of traditional practices disappointed the Africans thus decided to stageresistance against Germans.

(v) The hostile and harsh treatment of the people by the German appointees, such as the Akidas. Akidas and their local police treated African people brutally. Their ruthless ruling system also discredited Africans hence lived like slaves.

(vi) African people wanted to regain their lost independence. Most of the young men felt that they had lost their manhood by submitting to the Germans. The German occupation at the initial stage involved different ways which resulted into disunity among the Africans. Later Africans realized the need to unite together so as to-fight against common enemy, that is, German foreigners.

(vii) Africans wanted to oppose adultery, rapping and fornication exercised by German mercenaries and their houseboys. These practices were crimes to African communities and the offenders had to be punished. This was predominant among the Ngindo communities. But the Germans and their houseboys exercised all the practices that were regarded as crimes and disregarded the Ngindo taboo. The local communities, especially the Ngindo, were discontented with these events hence took up arms against Germans.

(viii) The Ngoni people wanted to revenge for the killings of 1898. During the initial stage of imposing German rule, a large number of Ngoni people were murdered and their properties destroyed or taken by German forces. This event created bitterness, hence resulting into taking up of arms by Ngoni’s against Germans.

(ix) The influence of Kinjekitile, who was an. effective leader with ability of organizing people, instilled confidence in the African people by requesting them to unite and take up arms against the German invaders. The Kinjekitile's force believed that they would be immune to German bullets as the water sprinkled on them would turn the bullets into water. The Majimaji resistance ended in. 1907 and African forces were defeated by the Germans. Many fighters were killed and those who survived lost the hope as the 'magic' water had failed to protect them from German bullets. Most of the fighters escaped to Mozambique, many were hanged while others surrendered to the Germans.

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The background of Abushiri and Bwana heri Resistance

ABUSHIRI AND BWANA HERI RESISTANCE 

This was African reaction along the coastal region where rich Arabs and local merchants had invested in coconut and cereal plantations in a large scale as well as trade activities. These plantation activities depended much on the interior, but the German company suppressed slave trade, hence affected the supply of labour to plantations. This event threatened the Arabs and, local merchant plantation owners. In 1888" the company agents imposed taxes and began to collect it from all people including feudal lords and rich merchants.




The coastal African resistance was led by Abushiri bin Salumel Hathi of Pangani. He organized his force and began to fight in August 1888, when the German company officials established themselves and hoisted the German flag in all the major coastal towns. In other cases, they opposed mosques and began to regulate the trade along caravan routes. The fighting extended to many coastal areas, thus other coastal people in Bagamoyo also joined the Abushiri's force against Germans.




The Abushiri resistance became so stiff that, the British joined the German forces by utilizing their naval forces, which had been used to suppress slave trade in the Indian Ocean, In order to make effective suppression, the German Chancellor sent major Hermann Von Wissman, a soldier and an, explorer with experience in different East African areas, He commanded German forces and recruited Mercenaries with the aim of' employing this force to crush the Abushiri uprising. These mercenaries comprised 600 Sudanese, 20 Turkish police, 400 Zulus, 21 officers and some soldier's from Tanganyika.




Starting from May, 1889, the German forces, under Major Von Wissman, were suppressing the Abushiri and regained most of the coastal towns within a few months: Finally, the leaders of this resistance were weakened, thus failing to co-ordinate their attacks. They faced strong German counter-attack. Abushiri fled to Mpwapwa in the Interior but he was weakened by Major Von Wissmans attack when German forces attacked Mpwapwa. Abushiri’s efforts were also affected by a person known as Magaya-a Jumbe orvillage headman in Usagara who betrayed him to the Germans. At the end Abushiri was captured and publicly hanged on 15th December, 1889.




Another coastal resistance was led by Bwana Heri of Uzigua, who fought against German forces since January 1889, when the German forces captured Saadani. Bwana Heri escaped to the interior where he built a fortress and staged a strong resistance against German forces until April 1890. Later on, Bwana Heri surrendered and ran away. After suppressing Abushiri and Bwana Heri the German forces faced another strong resistance in the southern coastal areas of Tanganyika. This was led by Hassani Bin Omari Makunganya of Kilwa. He organized and led a strong attack against German fortress in Kilwa, but he was defeated by the German forces. After his defeat, Hassan bin Omari fled to the inland where he organized another attack. However, the Germans realized his plan and pre-empted it.




Finally, Hassan bin Omari Makunganya was captured and hanged on a mango tree in Kilwa Kivinje, in May 1890. Since then, the mango tree was used by Germans for hanging all African victims publicly so as to threaten and warn Africans not to engage in further revolts and alert those who disobeyed' the government orders. The coastal active resistance against Germans was brought to an end by the defeat and hangings of Omari bin Hassan Makunganya.

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THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE 1891 - 1894

THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE 1891 - 1894

This was another reaction against Germany colonial rule which was staged by Nyarnwezi under Chief, Isike. Initially the Nyamwezi had business relations with Germans, they conducted trade together. But later on the Nyamwezi realized that the German's intention of monopolizing their trade which passed through their land to important trading centres like Ujiji; and Mwanza, controlling land and ruling them. In order to avoid the German control, Chief Isike organized his people to take up arms and closed the trade routes for number of months. Due to poor weapons Nyamwezi were defeated by the well organized and equipped German forces. In 1893 Chief Isike's fort was badly destroyed by German forces. Chief Isike decided to blow up himself together with his family ·in the gun powder magazine rather than being captured by the Germans.

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The Origin or background of the Hehe Resistance of 1891-1898

 THE HEHE RESISTANCE 1891-1898



This was one among the most notable active small scale resistances, which were very fierce since they involved military action sand was well organized. The leader of this reaction was Chief Mkwawa who is also known as chief Mkwavinyika. The name Mkwavinyika means the conqueror of lands. The Hehe resistance was caused by the German occupation of several areas in Mainland Tanganyika (the present day Tanzania) such as Ugogo, Ukaguru, Usagara and Mpwapwa, which had economic importance to the Hehe ruling class. These occupied areas were potential for trade activities thus German occupation threatened the economic position of Hehe ruling class.



Before taking up arms, Chief Mkwavinyika (Mkwawa) sent a delegation with present to meet the German administrators at the coast. 

The Germans responded by requesting the chief to surrender his sovereignty and they showed a disregard of the Chief Mkwavinyika's request by killing all the men in his delegation. Chief Mkwavinyika reacted by blocking all- the' caravan routes passing through the area to disrupt the German trade, hence they failed to obtain raw materials from the interior. This event angered the German rulers and decided to send a military force led by commander of German forces. Chief 

Mkwavinyika's force managed to defeat the German forces on 16th August 1891 at Lugalo. 

The defeat was associated with killing of several people, including commander of the German forces, Emil Von Zelewsky, and three hundred (300) African soldiers. The Mkwavinyika's army also captured about three (3) cannons and three hundred (300) rifles from the German forces. The defeat of German by the Hehe actually shocked the colonial administration and showed the strength of Hehe's army. After three years the German prepared their force for another attack.


Before attacking the Hehe empire, the German administrators sent a delegation to chief Mkwavinyika which required him to pay for the war indemnity he 'had caused on Germans, recognizing the Kaiser's sovereignty, surrender the war weapons he captured at first attack, stop conquering the neighboring territory and allow the European Missionaries and traders to access the Uhehe by the routes he blocked. Chief Mkwawa rejected all the demands.




Germans attacked the Hehe in October 1894 and managed to capture Kalenga, which was Mkwavinyika's capital. He escaped and organized a guerrilla warfare, which extended for about four years. Later on the German patrol caught up Mkwavinyika in July 1898, and surrounded him while he was very tired, sick and alone; he decided to shoot himself rather than being captured while still alive. This marked the decline of the Hehe ruling class and the beginning of German control.

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What were the reasons for African resistance against colonial domination

Armed or Active resistance

It is the form of reaction involved the use of weapons by Africans to fight against Europeans and prevent them from imposing colonial rule in their territories. Example of active or armed resistance in Africa include the Mandinka in west Africa, Majimaji in Tanganyika, Nama and Herero uprising in Namibia, Shona and Ndebele uprising in Zimbabwe and Nandi resistance in Kenya.

Passive resistance

Refers to unarmed opposition. It also means the adaptation of non-cooperative measures with the colonial powers but without using violence. This can be exemplified by the Pogoro of Tanzania who refused to involve in colonial activities like cotton picking.




Reasons for African resistance against colonial domination

• Some leaders resisted colonial powers in order to defend social and political sovereignty. For example, Kabarega of Bunyoro fought the British, Mkwawa of the Hehe and Abushiri resisted the Germans in Tanganyika.

• Africans wanted to preserve their monopolies. Until 1890’s the African trade merchants were conducting trade between the coastal areas and the interior. For example, the Nyamwezi under Isike and the Yao under Machemba resisted Germans because the later interfered the long distance trade and wanted to control it and collect tax.

• African rulers resisted colonialism due to its repressive administrative and economic policies. For example, the Belgians in Congo and Germans in Namibia, Tanganyika and Togo were very repressive against the native.

• African wanted to defend their religious practices and culture as in the case of the Maji Maji uprising (1905-1907), the Shona and Ndebele resistance (1896-1897).

• Some had to resist because the white man’s Christianity opposed certain African practices such as polygamy, drinking beer, spiritual and ancestral worship and human sacrifices.

• Other societies resisted because they believed that they were politically and military strong as they unaware of European military strength. For example, Chief Machemba of Yao in Makonde believed that his troops could smash easily that of the Germany.

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What were the reasons for African collaboration.

  Collaboration or Alliance

Collaboration means the cooperation between Africans and European invaders. It can be explained as adaptation. This method involved forming alliance with the Europeans against indigenous enemies and concluding treaties. Example of African societies, which made alliance with the Europeans were Creoles, Maasai, Baganda and Lozi.




Reasons for African collaboration.

• Some societies allied with the foreigners because they were incapable of holding out the invaders and they saw that it was fruitless to fight, as they weak military.

• Some African leaders sought an alliance with the Europeans as they considered that it was one of the means of avoiding confrontation and keeping off their rival neighbors. Example, the Baganda and Omukama Kasagama of Toro allied with the British because they were afraid of Kabarega of Bunyoro who was strong military.

• African hoped to gain from the Europeans or even acquire arms from them. Examples are the Nambongo Mumia of Waga and Mutesa I of Buganda.

• Some collaborated because they desired to have atmosphere of peace and promote human development for they had been subjected to constant war fare that disrupted the harmony and evolution of economic sector like trade in their societies. Example Yoruba who had been constantly tortured by Ibadan, the Fante by the Asante and the Toro of Bunyoro.

• Most rulers collaborated because they were ignorant of European intention. They were fooled by presents and bribes and were sometime persuaded to sign treaties beyond their understanding. Example Mwanga of Buganda and in West Africa Jaja of Opobo and Samori Toure.

• Some Africans made alliance with Europeans because they had suffered greatly from natural calamities. Therefore they sought that Europeans would bring them relief aid. Example the Kikuyu, Maasai, the Chagga and Sambaa would have certainly resisted the imposition of colonial rule if epidemics had not exerted adverse effects.

• Individual Africans made friendship with colonialists because they were opportunistic self-seekers hoping to acquire wealth, prestige, rewards and other presents. For example, Semei Kakunguru of Buganda, Nuwa Mbaguta of Ankole and Wanyiki of Kikuyu, all these had personal interests and ambitions.

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