EARLY EXTERNAL CONTACTS
DEVELOPMENT OF COASTAL TRADE LINK THROUGH THE INDIAN OCEAN UP TO THE 18TH CENTURY
• Trade links between the East African coast and the external world can be divided into two (2) major phases of historical development:
• Phase one
ü This phase covered the period between the 2nd century BC to 7th Century AD. The major feature of this period was lack of continuous and constant trade contacts on the coast (?)
ü This phase was dominated by traders from Rome and Greece empires who were in great demand for ivory as indicated in the Periplus of the Erythrean sea. These trading relations, however, were only confined to the Somalia coast .
• Continuation…….
ü Extension of these trading relations to Tanzanian coast was made by Arab traders during the 5th and 6th centuries AD.
ü It is believed that, by this time a big trading center known as Rhapta had been established along the Tanzanian coast, though the Periplus of the Erythrean sea failed to give the actual location of the this trading centre. During this period the demand for ivory had extended from Rome and Greece to India, China and Indonesia.
ü During the 7th century, increased demands for food grain and mangrove poles (which were used as building materials) in Arabia and slave labor in Iraq and Iran led to increased commercial activities along the coast.
ü During this period slaves were demanded in the Arabian world for several reasons such as military demands (served as soldiers), agricultural demands (to work in farms), salt production, domestic servants and women were used as concubines.
• Continuation….
ü During this period no permanent settlement (?) were established along the coast of Tanzania, though some Arab traders intermarried with local Africans of the coast. Such intermarriage marked the begging of the emergence and development (origin) of the Swahili people and their culture (language, religion, dressing, and values)
• Phase two
• The second phase lasted from the 8th to the 18th century AD. It was referred to as the period of the “rise, growth and consolidation of the East African coastal civilization”. This phase can be divided into four major stages
Ø The first stage covered the period from the 8th century to the 12th century. During this period most traders came from Oman and Persian empire.
ü It was during this period that the Arabs made their first attempt to establish permanent settlements along the Tanzanian coast including Zanzibar.
ü There was large migration of Arab traders mainly from Shiraz in Persia to the East Africa coast, especially during the 10th century AD. These traders were mainly attracted by gold which was mined in ancient Zimbabwe (Mwenemutapa empire) and began to be exported from Sofala coast through Kilwa to middle East by 10th century
• Continuation…….
Ø The second stage
This lasted from the 12th -15th century. It was referred to as the “height of coastal civilization” as there was rapid growth of coastal towns like Kilwa. Gold was still an important commodity.
ü Gold from the Great Zimbabwe (Mwenemutapa empire) was carried to Sofala from where it was shipped to Kilwa before being exported to the middle East and Persian countries.
ü Thus, Kilwa became an important center for gold trade along the East African coast resulting to its tremendous growth and prosperity. Beside Kilwa, other coastal towns (city states) which grew as a result of this coastal trade includes Zanzibar, Mombasa, Malindi, Mogadishu and Pate.
• Continuation…….
Ø The third stage constituted the Portuguese era and lasted from the 16th to 17th century. Portuguese interests along the East African coast was to gain control over the costal trade which was in the hands of the Oman Arabs and Persians. To achieve their goals they used the methods of warfare, raids, piracy and robbery.
• The Portuguese were forced to use force because they lacked sufficient capital to invest in commercial activities. This explains why the Portuguese built a series of military forts (garrisons) along the entire coast of Eastern Africa from Mogadishu in the north to Sofala in the south.
• The use of force adapted by the Portuguese to gain control over the coastal trade in East Africa had far reaching negative impacts on the prosperity of the coastal trade and the city states in general. How?
• Continuation…..
ü There was a diversion (change of direction) of the major trade routes especially those in connection to gold and copper. For example, gold was now shipped direct from Sofala southwards (instead of northward to Kilwa and then to middle East) to overseas (Europe). Thus, Kilwa lost much of its wealth and revenue as it was no longer an important center for gold trade.
ü There was a decline of the coastal city states like Kilwa as their prosperity depended on gold trade. These city states lost the basis of their economy where as the African and Arab traders who acted as middlemen lost their businesses.
ü In the mining areas (Mwenemutapa), strong conflict developed between African gold miners and Portuguese traders. The Portuguese traders wanted to control gold production, a situation which was highly resisted by African gold miners. The result of these bitter conflicts was a sharp decline in gold production and coastal trade in general.
• Continuation……
ü The Portuguese introduced trading licenses and permits on African and Arab traders. This was again highly resisted by the African and Arab traders culminating to further decline in trade along the East African Coast
ü The Portuguese were not interested in developing the coastal city states, but rather, they were interested in the wealth which was controlled by these city states. Thus, they left the towns to stagnate and decay.
Thus, the Portuguese period was a period of greater decline of the coastal city states and their economy which depended on gold trade.
Ø The fourth stage constituted the 18th century featured by the rise of the Oman empire on the East African coast.
ü The Oman Arabs in collaboration with the Swahili traders, began to challenge Portuguese dominance along the East African coast from mid 17th century.
• Continuation…..
ü The Arab-Swahili collaboration led to anti-Portuguese resistances. The final result of such resistances was the total expulsion of the Portuguese from the East African coast, especially after the decline of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1698.
ü Thus, throughout the 19th century, the Oman Arabs made several attempts to revive the East African coastal trade and to reconstruct the city states and their beautiful buildings which were greatly ravaged by the Portuguese activities.
• The rise of Seyyid Said to power in Oman in 1806
• Having defeated the Portuguese along the coast of East Africa at the end of the 17th century (1698), the Oman Arabs under their Imam (ruler) emerged as the new overlords of the East African coast and its adjacent islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, mafia, etc. Thus, the East African coast and its adjacent islands were ruled directly from Oman.
• As a result, the Oman ruler appointed Oman Arabs as governors to represent him in the coastal towns and the islands.
• However, political conflicts ( resulting from power struggle) in Oman, prevented the Oman administration (ruler) from having enough power to effectively control the region.
• For example, following the overthrow of the Yarubi ruling dynasty by the Busaidi ruling dynasty in 1741, many of the Oman governors in the city states ( like the Mazrui dynasty of Mombasa) refused to accept the new ruling dynasty as they wanted to rule themselves, thus, they declared themselves independent. Zanzibar was among the few towns which accepted the change of dynasty in Oman.
• Continuation…..
• Oman started exercising effective control over the East African coast in 1806 when Seyyid Said rose to power. By then, the only places which Oman ruler had greater influence were Zanzibar, Kilwa Kisiwani and Mafia (why?)
• Seyyid Said rose to power after being assisted by the British East Indian Company which had its headquarters in India (Bombay )
• Other Oman rulers before Seyyid Said were known as Imams because, apart from being political leaders, they were also regarded as religious leaders of they community.
• But Seyyid Said, like his father before him, used non religious title, the Sultan, because he had seized (grabbed) power, instead of being traditionally elected by different sections (clans) of the Oman community. Shortly after he rose to power, Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar.
• Establishment of the Oman-Zanzibar Sultanate 1810-1840
• Having assisted Seyyid Said to consolidate his power in Oman, the British East Indian Company pressurized Seyyid Said to make his claims over East African coast known to other powers (Portugal and France). Why?
• Because Britain feared that the region would fall in the hands of the French who were already along the East African coast since 1770s buying slaves from Zanzibar and Kilwa for their sugarcane and coffee plantations in Mauritius and the Reunion and for export in West Indies (New Land) where they also had plantations and mining centers .
• French occupation of East African coast would endanger British East Indian company commercial interests in the region, since Zanzibar, for example, was an important trading centre along the East African coast.
• Continuation…….
• Therefore by backing up Sultan’s claims over the East African coast, the British East Indian company hoped that the sultan would help to protect British commercial interests in the region.
• It is important to establish at this point that, Sultan’s claims to rule East African coast were not entirely driven by the Sultan himself and his Oman Arabs, but rather, they were partly driven by British capitalist motives to secure reliable sources of markets and raw materials in the region.
• Thus, with the help of the British forces, the sultan was able to establish his effective control over East African coastal towns by 1840. This control began with the occupation of the rebellious towns along the coast of Kenya (Lamu 1813 and Pate 1822). This was followed by the occupation of other coastal towns such Tanga and Pangani along the coast Tanzania.
• Continuation…..
• From Tanga and Pangani, the Sultan extended his influence further south to Kilwa archipelago and Lindi.
• Mombasa under the Mazrui dynasty, was the only coastal town that posed a strong and protracted resistance to Sultan’s efforts to extend his influence along the East African coast. This ruling family highly resisted Sultan’s influence because of three major reasons:
– They were determined to retain their own independence and freedom
– They wanted to exercise effective control over the whole of the Kenyan coastal towns
– They wanted to maintain their control of Pemba island, which was their main source of food.
• Thus, Mombasa made protracted resistances until 1837 when it was finally conquered, making the Sultan an overall ruler of the entire East African coast.
• Continuation……
To ensure effective control of the region, the Sultan had to shift his government headquarters from Muscat Oman to Zanzibar in 1840. His decision to locate his capital city in Zanzibar was attributed to a number of reasons:
– Great fertility of the islands promised the development of successful agricultural economy.
– Good climate, cool and wet/humid climate when compared to Oman hot and dry climate.
– Presence of good natural harbors which could easily facilitate the calling of ship, loading and unloading of cargo (goods)
– Zanzibar was just opposite to the mainland which was a greater source of ivory and slaves
– Good revenue which the Sultan had started collecting from ivory and slave trade of Kilwa and other towns in the southern Swahili coast through Zanzibar before he transferred his capital to Zanzibar.
• Establishment of the Zanzibar Commercial Empire
• The prosperity of trading or commercial activities in Zanzibar in particular and the East African coast and the interior in general was a result of the creation of the Oman Zanzibar sultanate by Seyyid Said between 1820s and 1840s.
• The creation of Zanzibar sultanate in turn created conducive environment for the expansion of commercial activities between Zanzibar and its adjacent interior.
• In ensuring further expansion and prosperity of commercial activities in his area of control, Sultan Seyyid Said adapted several measures:
– He signed commercial agreements or treaties with representatives from America, Britain, France, and Germany government between 1830s and 1840s. He did so in order to secure markets for the main products, ivory and cloves
• Continuation……
– He encouraged Oman Arabs to migrate to Zanzibar to establish clove and coconut plantations even before transferring his capital to Zanzibar.
– Having recognized that his own people (Oman Arabs) were not skilled enough in money matters, he invited Indian merchants (Banyans). These had distinguished themselves as skilled businessmen and had proved to him (back home) to have good ability of financial management . These Indian merchants played a double role in the Zanzibar sultanate:
üThey worked as custom officials of the sultan at different ports
üThe richest became money lenders. They gave loans in the form of trade goods to Arab - Swahili traders who led the caravan in the interior of mainland Tanzania. This situation encouraged more Swahili traders to participate in the caravan trade in search of ivory and slaves in the interior.
– He also reduced obstacles/ barriers to trade at all the coastal ports by introducing a uniform five percent (5%) custom duty (amount of money paid as tax for imported and exported goods). Before his arrival in Zanzibar, each coastal town had its own rate of custom duty.
– He introduced some Indian money known as Pice in order to facilitate the flow of trade in Zanzibar.
• Effects of coastal trade on the development of social, economic and political formation
• It is important to analyze the contribution made by the development of external trade along the East African coast and its societies during the period of nearly two millennia (2nd century BC to 18th century AD). Why?
• Because this analysis would help us to understand how external trading contacts impacted political, social, cultural and economic evolution of coastal societies and the interior in general. Some of the major effects are:
During the first phase (2nd century BC to 7th century AD):
§ During the first phase, there was hardly any significant contribution made by the coastal trade. This was due to two major reasons:
– One, there was lack of continuous and constant trading contacts, traders made periodic visits along the coast. Two, even trading centers and towns of considerable size had not developed
The only position or achievement of this early phase of trading contacts along the coast was to expose East Africa and its resources to the outside world.
During the 2nd phase (8th century AD to the 18th century AD)
The second phase produced reasonable political, social, economic and cultural impacts along the East African coast because it was in this period that the coast achieved the height of its civilization due to :
ü Increased commercial activities, especially trade in gold
ü Growth of coastal city states as important trading centers
ü Establishment of the Zanzibar commercial empire.
q The effects of this phase can be described as follow:
• A general significant development during this phase was the rise of coastal culture and civilization commonly regarded as the Swahili culture/civilization. Swahili civilization that developed along the coast was characterized by :
ü Development of a common coastal language, Kiswahili which was an important means of communication in the process of trading interaction
ü Spread of Islam as a religion . Islam began to spread gradually among the coastal societies from the 9th century when the coast started receiving Islamized traders. From the coast, Islam was carried by the same traders to the interiors especially from the 18th century.
ü Development of Arabic style of architecture (building). This included the construction of flat roofed buildings using stones and lime. Thus, most of the coastal city states were characterized by attractive structures such palaces (official home of a king/queen) and mosques. Husuni Kubwa and the Great Mosque in Kilwa are examples of such structures.
• Continuation…..
ü Development of mode of production out of he city states societies. This mode of production was basically a slave mode of production. This mode of production was featured by ;
• Existence of two major classes, the dominant class ( slave masters) and the subordinate class (slaves)
• Specific form of division of labor, the slaves and the were the laborers while the slave masters were non laborers.
• Slaves were legal properties of the slave master. The slave masters owned both, the slaves and the product of his labor
• Many people from different parts of the interior were either employed as porters to carry ivory to the coastal ports or were taken to Zanzibar and Pemba as slaves to work in cloves and coconut plantations.
ü In this way human labor was drained away from the traditional economy of the interior. This marked the beginning of the earliest form of migrant labor in the East Africa.
• Areas bordering the coast became suppliers of food to Zanzibar and Pemba to feed the labor force in the clove plantation, and the ruling families and merchant classes in towns. Usambara for example became a big exporter of sorghum, where as Uzigua exported millet and rice annually.
• Many people bordering the trading centers and caravan routes in the interior had to supply food to resident coastal traders and to caravans travelling between the coast and the interior.
ü People around Tabora for example found it important to produce more food than before in order to feed coastal traders and their large numbers of porters and slaves residing there on transit to slave market.
• Trade in essential goods or basic goods like iron tools, salt, ports, foodstuff, handcraft products, and animal products was replaced by trade in luxury goods such as cotton cloth, beads, looking glasses, copper wire, alcoholic drinks and guns. Foreign traders were not interested in traditional products produced in the interior, they were instead, looking for slaves, ivory and gold.
• Development of trading centers in the interior. These towns began as collection centers for ivory, slaves and food for the caravans. They gradually grew into large trading centers most of which were located along the central route from Bagamoyo (East) to Lake Tanganyika ( West).
• Continuation…
• The contact led to cultural, ethnic, and linguistic changes in the coastal towns and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. For example:
ü Large migrations of Africans from the interior to the coastal towns and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba as slaves resulted to high population in the coastal towns and the islands. Hence, the population in these areas became more and more ethnically mixed up than ever before.
ü The use of African women as concubine by Arabs produced a relatively large Swahili speaking Afro-Arab group (mulatoes). For example most of Seyyid Said’s wives were Africans and his children spoke Kiswahili rather than Arabic.
• Continuation….
• Increased power struggle between different ruling families in each state. This was triggered by the acquisition of fire arms by the Batemi and other members of the ruling families.
ü For example, in the Kingdom of Unyanyembe, the death of Ntemi Fundikira (1858) marked the beginning of power struggle within the royal family.
ü The struggle began when the rightful successor, Mwanasele was overthrown in 1860 by one of his relatives named Kiyungi with the help of the Zanzibar Arab traders who resided in Tabora.
ü These Arabs did not like Mwanasele because he had imposed heavy taxes on them soon after his installation in 1858. On this ground, Arab traders used military power to assist Kiyungi to remove him
• The spread of fire arms in the western region eventually led to the rise of military rulers or war lords in the 1870s. The most outstanding among them were Mirambo (Tabora), Nyungu ya mawe( Ukimbu), Simba of Ukonongo in Mpanda District, Ntinginya of Busongo in Igunga District and Kapela of Bukune in what is now Kahama district
ü These new kind of rulers disregarded completely the traditional norms of succession to kingship and the traditional political boundaries in the region (How?). Instead they used guns and mercenaries (Rugaruga) to get political power and create entirely new larger states by forcibly uniting several small states.
Thus, rulers like Mirambo and Nyungu ya mawe were able to expand their areas of control and committed great atrocities against small states because of the fire arms they acquired from the coast through trading contact.
