THE RISE OF THE ZULU KINGDOM AND THE MFECANE
Historical evidence suggest that the major feature of South African history from the earliest times was constant and continuous conflicts.
– For example:
• The coming of the Bantu resulted to conflict between the Hottentots and the Bantu and the Bushmen. In this early conflict the Hottentots and the Bushmen were conquered and destroyed.
• Then came the conflict between the Hottentots, Bantu and the Boers.
• Then came the conflict between the Boers and the British
• Then the conflict between African themselves
• One of the major outcome of the conflicts between African themselves was the rise of the Zulu state under Shaka.
• However, before the 18th century, and particularly before the rise of Chaka, the Bantu speaking people were organized in many, but smaller political units. There were about 100 small but independent political units among the Bantu. This kind of political organization was a result of several factors:
– The population was smaller and therefore, there was plenty of land which could support a large number of political units and new settlements.
– Due to internal friction and instability, community members who felt that they were undermined by their ruler could break away and establish their own independent political units.
– Because states were generally smaller, they were governed in a very simple way. Large conflicts were very rare, thus, there was no need of large scale political units and military organization.
• However by the end of the 18th century, the situation greatly changed. There was rapid population increase and thus more land was needed for father expansion. As a result, land could only be acquired by force of arms. Thus, the bravest and strongest political units could acquire land at the expense of their weaker neighbors or enemies.
• Thus, by the beginning of the 19th century, population increase in Zululand and Natal resulted to greater political and military changes. For example:
» Rapid population increase resulted to frequent conflict over land for further expansion.
» War, therefore became the only means of acquiring land resulting to loss of life and properties.
» It also become necessary to improve military organization and methods of fighting to match with the prevailing conditions.
» Important chiefdoms were created. For example:
• Mthethwa chiefdom led by Dingiswayo
• Ndwandwe chiefdom led by Zwide
• Ngwane chiefdom led by Sobhuza.
All these three chiefdoms among the Nguni speakers rose to greatness by military means. Among the three chiefdoms, Dingiswayo’s chiefdom was the largest. It was also during Dingiswayo’s rule that Chaka / Shaka got his early military training and experience.
• Therefore, by the time Shaka rose to power and became an important figure in the history of South Africa, positive development towards creation of larger and more powerful political units had been made.
Shaka and the origin of the Zulu Kingdom
– Shaka was born around1783. His father, Senzangakona was a chief of a very small and less important clan called Zulu clan.
– His mother was called Nandi. The birth of Shaka to Nandi was not welcomed by the Zulu elders. Thus, Shaka was brought up by his mother and away from his father, thus, Shaka was very fond of his mother.
– Brought up away from his father’s home, Shaka had unhappy and difficulty early life. He was always harassed by his play mates to whom he always boasted of his chiefly origin/descendant.
– As he grew up Shaka demonstrated :
• High degree of intelligence and courage
• Qualities accompanied by arrogance and lack of interest to human sufferings
• He was energetic and merciless
• Generally Shaka had the qualities of a man who could shape society for better or worse, by force of arms.
When Shaka was 16, his mother took him to the Mthethwa chief , Dingiswayo, and, at the age of 22, he became a soldier in one of Dingiswayo's regiments. He was brave and the and soon became leader of one of the regiments
– Thus, Shaka gained his military experience as a commander of one of the Dingiswayo’s regiments. Dingiswayo recognized in Shaka the qualities of a brave warrior.
– In bout 1816, his father died and replaced by his son Sigujana. Realizing that he was unable to depose Sigujana, he asked military assistance from Dingiswayo. Following the assistance he got from Dingiswayo, Sigujana was defeated, murdered and Shaka became the ruler of the Zulu. He established his capital at Bulawayo in Natal
From this point onwards, Shaka was determined to make his smaller chiefdom the most powerful and feared Kingdom.
Shaka’s reforms in the Zulu chiefdom
• Military reforms:
Shaka’s training under Dingiswayo taught him new fighting tactics which he put into practice immediately he came to power. The military reforms introduced by Shaka were revolutionary:
– He created standing or permanent army, the system which never existed before. Before him, there was no permanent army, soldiers were only called when a need arose. Otherwise, they stayed in their home attending to their ordinary day to day work.
– Shaka is also supposed to have introduced a larger, and heavier shield made of cowhide and to have taught each warrior how to use the shield's left side to hook the enemy's shield to the right, exposing his ribs for a fatal spear stab. In Shaka's time, these cowhide shields were supplied by the king, and remained the king's property
– He reorganized the old age regiment. Age regiment refers to the situation where by boys of the same age formed a fighting group. The aim of this reorganization was to make them more efficient and effective for large scale warfare. In implementing this:
• Shaka’s Military Induna
» Regiments were introduced throughout the chiefdom
» Each regiment had its color which was the color of its shields and head gear.
» The warriors lived in special military settlement or towns
» Each military settlement was under a military commander called Induna, who was appointed by Shaka himself.
» Each military settlement contained a royal house hold, cattle enclosures and dwelling huts for the warriors.
» In these military settlements warriors were armed with shields and spears, drilled, attired and fed at the King’s or public expense.
» While in military settlements, the warriors sang the praises of Shaka, their Lord and master.
– Shaka drilled his troops frequently, forced marches sometimes covering more than 50 miles (80 km) a day in a fast trot over hot, rocky terrain
– Shaka also introduced short stabbing spears (Iklwa) which had a shorter handle, enabling the solders to engage in hand to hand combat with the enemy.
• The long handle spear (assegai)which was commonly used had one major weakness as a fighting weapon, that is, because it was usually thrown to the enemy, the warriors were left defenseless and helpless but for their large shields.
• But with the new weapon, fighting became more efficient. The warriors could protect themselves with their shields and concentrated on destroying the enemy with their knife like spears. No more would they be left defenseless.
– The warriors were subjected to thorough discipline. They were not allowed to marry before their right time. When the right time came, the whole regiment was freed from service. A female group of the same age or equivalent age group was also freed and its members given to the freed warriors as wives.
– Shaka introduced the so called scotched earth policy. This was a tact by which Shaka’s soldiers destroyed all the food they found along the way in order to starve the coming enemy soldiers.
– Sandals were discarded to toughen the feet of Zulu warriors, this has been noted in various military accounts. Those who objected to going without sandals were simply killed.
– Under Shaka’s leadership, the young men of the conquered people were absorbed into state army and given the same treatment as the Zulu warriors.
They joined appropriate age regiments and mixed with young men from all over the country. If they were too young to join the regiments, they looked after the cattle and acted as weapon bearers for the warriors, like the young Zulu boys.
– Shaka is also credited with the introduction of the famous technique known as the cow’s horn formation. By this means of fighting, the bulk (large portion) of the regiments formed a thick and therefore strong base. On each side of the base, a regiment would curve towards the enemy, rather like the horns of a cow. As the horns tries to surround enemy’s warriors, the thick centre would press / push forward and thereby annihilate / destroy them
Administrative reforms:
Following military reforms introduced by Shaka, then the Zulu nation was a military state ruled by despotic king / king with absolute power, cruel and oppressive.
– The king was the source of all power and army commanders became king’s advisors. They were consulted by him, though he could and often did ignore their advices.
– The old traditional council of chiefs and leading elders came to an end, and therefore it was no longer consulted.
– Even the military Indunas who could advise the king were not allowed to hold unauthorized meetings as they could plot against Shaka.
– Absolute loyalty to the king became the order of the day
– The chiefs of the conquered people lost their power and their authority was restricted to issues related to administration of justice only.
Generally the power rested in the hands of the army and the king. Such was the kind of a state created by Shaka. The Zulu nation was born out of war and organized for war.
Shaka and the Mfecane
This period of revolutionary change known as the Mfecane ("Crushing" or "hammering") by the Zulu and the Difaqane (“The Crushing”) by the Sotho is also often referred to as "the time of troubles“
– Mfecane can therefore be defined as the period of widespread war, plundering, disturbances, destructions and migrations in the Zululand and other parts of South Africa between 1820 and 1834. This period is characterized by the rise of the Zulu State under Shaka.
– Although historians have tried to analyze various factors behind the out break of Mfecane, however, the outbreak of these protracted wars were greatly prodded by the rise of Shaka into power. Why?
– During most of the 1820s, Shaka consolidated his power through a series of wars against neighboring peoples. His armies
• raided for cattle and food;
• attacked any one who challenged the authority of the Zulu monarch; and
• extended the limits of Shaka's realm north to the borders of present-day Mozambique, west across the Drakensberg Mountains, and south to the margins of the area that would later become the Transkei homeland
All these barbaric behaviors and atrocities committed by Zulu warriors greatly contributed to the growth and expansion of Mfecane.
– Most of the wars were fought in areas which lies between the Drankensberg mountains, the Kalahari desert and the Limpopo river.
Causes of the Mfecane
– The rise of the Zulu nation
The result of Shaka’s military and administrative reforms were far reaching. The Zulu became powerful, aggressive, ambitious, and expansionist. The Zulu nation became the state of warriors, maintained by warriors and sustained by warfare and it could only survive as long as there was enough fighting to keep the king, the Indunas and the warriors busy.
The Zulu wanted to dominate all other chiefdoms in the region. This resulted to a series of wars of conquest waged by the Zulu against their neighbors. This situation greatly intensified Mfecane.
– Geographical barriers
Presence of features such as the Drankensberg mountains, the Kalahari desert, and the Indian ocean made it impossible for people to expand to the west and east respectively. This contributed to population pressure in the area resulting to wars for securing land. Thus, wars became the only means to secure land.
– Shortage of land
Many people migrated into the area because the area was generally good for farming due to its fertility. Therefore, this area suffered from population increase. In addition, population increase was also due to natural increase caused by Portuguese introduction of maize from Mozambique which ensured constant and reliable supply of food. Therefore, following increased population growth as a result of migration and natural increase, then, there was severe struggle for land.
– The rise of long distance trade during the 17th century.
From he 17th century, trade had developed along the East coast of South Africa with the Portuguese traders at the Delagoa bay. During the 19th century, this trade came to its peak.
The desire to gain control over trade, trade routes and tributes produced sharp conflicts among the Nguni speakers. As a result of some of the Nguni speakers began to attack and fight others with the intention of becoming dominant political units as the Portuguese wanted to trade with organized political units under powerful rulers.
– Boers expansion
This expansion began towards the end of the 17th century and became more intensive towards mid 19th century. This expansion was triggered by the desire of the Boers to acquire more land for farming and animal keeping. Thus, their expansion further contributed to shortage of land in the interior of South Africa
Shaka’s death
By the end of these wars, Shaka became the most powerful and the most feared ruler in the Zululand. Shaka’s death was preceded by the death of his mother in 1827. Nandi’s death greatly distressed Shaka. Following the death of his mother:
– He proclaimed national mourning for a whole year.
– During the period of mourning women were not allowed to cohabit with their husband.
– For about three months, people were forbidden to drink milk
– Thousands of people of people were put to death for not mourning adequately
– Others who were accused of wishing Nandi’s death were put to death
– Women who became pregnant during the mourning season were also put to death
– Shaka ordered that no crops should be planted during the following year
– Cows were slaughtered so that their calves would know what losing a mother felt like
• In the following year, 24th September 1828 Shaka was stabbed to death by his half brothers, Mhalangana and Dingane, in collaboration with his chief Induna Mbhopa. As he fell down, his last words were “ Oh children of my father, what have I done to you?”
– In other accounts, Shaka is also believed to have said that “ are you stabbing me, king of the earth? You will come to an end through killing one another “
• Shaka's corpse was dumped into an empty grain pit by his assassins and filled with stones and mud. The exact location is unknown
• His murderers claimed that they had killed him to rid the nation of hardship and undemocratic rule, but it is also clear that they killed him out of their own greed and thirst for power.
• After the death of Shaka, Dingane took the throne. However Dingane later killed his brother, Mhalangana, Mbhopa the chief Induna, and all other political rivals in order to gain full powers as the new chief and be safe.
Consequences of Mfecane
– Depopulation: thousands of people were killed. Endless wars turned the whole region full of human corpses and skeletons. It was a land full of death, misery and acute hardship. Where a few people still survived, their conditions were very bad. They were subjected to acute starvation and extreme poverty, many of them resorted to cannibalism in order to survive.
– People became impoverished. A good example of these impoverished refugees were the Fingo. Having lost all their properties, cattle , land and food, they wandered from place to place begging for food and sometimes by force.
– Some outstanding leaders of remarkable ability and wisdom were able to re-organize their people and the numerous refugees into new powerful and united states. The kingdom of Basutoland, Swaziland and Bechuanaland are the best examples of these.
– Mfecane also led to the emergence of entirely new societies both in South Africa and East Africa. They were founded by refugees who trekked away from their original home into distant districts or regions. During their long journey, they conquered in their way and incorporated many of them and their settlement in their new homes, this was always preceded by fighting. The Ngoni who came to settle in Tanzania are good example.
– Economic and social disruption: agricultural activities were abandoned as life became insecure. Many people were killed and others forced into exile. Families as the basis of production were broken down. Beautiful areas like Natal were devastated as communities broke down and people fled to secure their lives
– Weakened African resistance against foreign intruders, particularly the Boers: this weakness led to European penetration in the interiors of South Africa. Boer’s penetration in the interior was due to the news that there existed an extensive fertile land and uninhabited land in the Natal area. When they reached there, they met with no serious resistance because Mfecane had destroyed inter-state relationship among Africans ; and therefore Africans had no unity to resist foreign intrusion.
– Many state were formed along lines of the Zulu kingdom. They borrowed the Zulu military and political organization and modified them to suit their peculiar needs and circumstances. Such state were formed from diverse cultural and linguistic groups, but from these diverse groups emerged powerful united states with a common language, culture, ruler and government. The languages of the dominant groups became the languages of the new, enlarged trans-tribal and expansionist state.
» Example of these were the Swazi, Ndebele, and Ngoni. The new states adopted Zulu military technique and political organization with great success.
