Why African Resistance against the imposition of colonialism Failed?

Why African Resistance Failed?

• It is true that many societies resisted against Europeans invaders but most of those resistance failed and African were defeated. The failure of Africans reactions was associated with the numbers of factors such as;

• Disunity among the African rulers. The Africans failed to unite together to fight for their enemy. Example in West Africa, Tanganyika, Angola, Namibia and Central Africa.

• Internal political factions in some Africa states contributed towards the defeat. Due to the disarray of many African states there was no time for cohesion to be against the enemy.

• Military and modern technology superiority of Europeans. Due to industrial revolution in Europe they were able to manufacture superior firearms which were used during the war against the Africans who most of them were using poor weapons.

• A disciplined and well-organized army helped to defeat African. The colonial armies were better trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics.

• The Europeans wanted to maintain and preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly. 

• Instability and public misery of Africans. Most of Africans were fought with bitterness which culminate into greater devastation, villages were burnt, farmland destroyed and animals looted. This ended up with gross loss of property, fear and famine.

• Religious division created serious problems for African unity. Religious disunity poisoned the cohesion of Africans. E.g. antagonism existed between Tijaniyya and Quidirrija brother in Algeria facilitated failure of resistance against the French.

• The unpopularity of some African leaders to their subjects led European victory.

• Natural calamities such as famine, drought and epidemic made it difficult for Africans to maintain stiff resistance.

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What are the Significance of the Early african Resistances

Significance of the Early Resistances.

i. Primary resistances helped to shape the environment of later African politics because of their impacts upon the thinking and action of the colonial authorities. The formation of TANU in Tanganyika had connection with Maji Maji and other associations.

ii. Primary resistances brought about the collapse of the commercial companies, which were at first employed by the German and British to open East Africa spheres of influence. So this forced the two governments to take direct responsibility.

iii. Primary resistances helped to change the early European attitudes of superiority. The thinking of administrators and settlers especially in Tanganyika and Southern Rhodesia after Maji Maji and Shona and Ndebele rising of 1896-1897, were dominated by fear of the repetition of such horrible outbreaks.

iv. Primary resistances showed Europeans that Africans were not willing to be colonized by Europeans. They wanted to remain' with their traditional ways of living.

v. Primary resistances displayed African grievances to the Europeans, e.g. Land alienation, forced cultivation, taxation, and low wages.

vi. Primary resistances forced Europeans to change their methods of ruling Africans. For example, in Tanganyika after the Maji Maji war the Germans made changes in their way of ruling including land ownership, taxation, whipping people in public etc.

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Why Ethiopia was not colonized

WHY ETHIOPIA ESCAPED COLONIALISM 

• Ethiopia was the only country in Africa that escaped colonialism. By 19th century all African nations had been dominated by the colonialists save Ethiopia there are various reasons that explain why Ethiopia managed to escape colonialism, these include the following forces; 

• The defeat of Italy in the battle of Adowa in 1896 made other European countries to fear to colonize Ethiopia; they thought that they might be defeated like Italy.

• The existence of powerful Emperors like emperor Theodore who once proposed to marry the queen of England, Emperor Yahannes 1867-1876, Emperor Menelik, these powerful leaders consolidated Ethiopia and made it strong enough to be colonized.

• The existence of Ahamaric language which promoted solidarity and unity within the Ethiopian society that made it solid able enough to resist the European powers from colonizing her.

• Poor geographical position and bad climatic condition such as- infertile soils; rocky lands and mountains of Ethiopia discouraged many Europeans to colonize it.

• Accessibility the modern weapons from Europe. After the Brussels treaty of 1890 in Belgium, Ethiopia managed to get more weapons from Europe to defend her self.

• The military strategic position of Ethiopia she is a mountainous country which could strategically able to defend her self from any intruder.

• The existence of Christianity ever since even before the advent of colonialist in Africa. Christianity has been adopted as a state religion; it brought awareness, civilization and unity among the Ethiopians which made it impossible to be colonized easily.

• Divisions among European powers during the colonization of Africa, every capitalist country was fighting alone to get more colonies, emperor Menelik used such chance to defend his country.

• The weakness of Italian army. Italy had just unified was not strong enough, this enabled Ethiopia to defeat her at the battle of Adowa in 1896.

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What are the effects of Nama and Herero uprising of 1904-1907

The Effects of Nama and Herero uprising

i. After the uprising, the Nama and Herero lost their cattle and land to Germans. They became very poor and lived in severe life that could not enable to live in conducive environment and good life.

ii. The chief township in Namibia was officially abolished by German government.

iii. Namibia became a Germans colony and German administration continued to be strong. For this reason, the Nama and Herero uprising did not materialize and had very minimal effect compared to that of Majimaji in Tanganyika.

iv. The African communities, such as Herero lost their life, only 16,000 Herero survived out of previous population on 80,000, whereas only 9800 Nama were alive in 1911, compared to 20,000 people who lived in 1892.

v. There was an increasing number of Germans in Namibia. For example up to 1903 the number of German was about 4,640 but after the war the number increased to 14,840 in 1913.

vi. After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where Africans women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour.




After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where African women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour. The Nama-Herero uprising went on until the end of 1905 when the Nama chief Witbooi was killed. Since then the Nama unity began to decline gradually. The Nama leadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon cooper, who continued the resistance until 1907 though the German reasserted their control. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero independence was destroyed by the German forces. They confiscated their cattle and deposed all their chiefs. African communities which survived were subordinated, forced to work in German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African communities up to the period of the First

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what are the Meaning and the Causes of Nama and Herero uprising of 1904-1907

NAMA AND HERERO UPRISING IN NAMIBIA (1904-1907)




The German occupation and imposition of its colonial rule in Namibia met with a limited success in the 1880’s and 1890’s. The region was inhabited by three main ethnic groups, the first and second group comprised Bantu people of Ambo and Herero who engaged in crop cultivation and livestock keeping. The other group comprised the Nama who were Hottentots and engaged in Pastoralism. Both groups depended on land for cultivation and pasture, The history of Namibia in the nineteenth century was characterized by intense conflicts between the Nama and Herero who angered in Pastoralism and hunting. After the arrival of Europeans, the conflict was intensified since this foreigner' s used the rivalry for their benefit. The Herero welcomed Germans who offered them a treaty of-protection and proposed to help them against the Nama. But this German and Herero alliance was opposed by the Nama leader Hedrick Witbooi since he understood the nature and real aims of Germans.




Chief Hedrick Witbooi realized that the Herero Chief could become just a mere subordinate chief under the German government. The Nama and Herero rivalry threatened the German missionaries. Later on, in 1884, the Germans declared a protectorate over Namibia; they also occupied the region effectively. The German government introduced the settler policy between 1884 and 1904, which affected both the Nama, and Herero hence accumulated a lot of grievances which resulted into uprising.




Causes of Nama and Herero uprising

i. Cattle raiding that were done frequently by the German traders and settlers. As cattle was among of the treasured commodity among the Nama and Herero communities, robbing of cattle threatening the economic interest of African commodities.

ii. The imposition of forced labour in 1896. German wanted labour to work in plantations and in construction of infrastructures such as roads, railways as well as public buildings. The German government used force to obtained laborers which discontented the Africans; thus decided to take up arms and against the Germans.

iii. Land alienation. This includes grabbing of the best grazing land in the central plateau of Namibia. German government reserved the land for settler settlement which in turn created hostility between African communities and Germans.

iv. Imposition of taxes. The German imposed tax that had to be paid by Africans, they began to demand tax in 1896 and in order to make effective collection of taxes they use force which led Africans to resist by taking up arms against the Germans.

v. The destruction of traditional authority, after they had established their control over Namibia, Germans did not pay attention to the region. For example they imposed some policies without consulting some traditional chiefs from Africans.

vi. Harassment to the Herero indebted people by German following the credit ordinance of 1903 that all debts had to be collected in one year time, after which the debt would be invalid.

vii. The outbreak of rinder pest diseases, which killed about 90% of Nama and Herero’s cattle in 1903. This affected their economy many sold their land to German settler in order to sustain their life. But the rinder pests diseases was interpreted by religious leaders punishment from God since the Nama and Herero cooperated by the whites, thus the people had to resist against the German so as to get rid of these misfortunes.

viii. The German control over religious beliefs. The Nama believed on their traditional religions and trusted their religious leaders, but when their beliefs were threatened by Germans, chiefs organized and motivated his subjects to resists against the German.

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What are the Effects of the Shona and Ndebele ( Chimulenga) Uprising of 1896-1897

The Effects of the Shona and Ndebele Uprising of 1896-1897

• The Chimurenga warriors were taught bitter lesson and many of them died during the confrontation.

• The BSAC administration incorporated and expropriated more fertile land and cattle as war indemnity.

• The company administration received much criticism from the colonial office for mistreatments of the natives. Then Cecil Rhodes guaranteed to make changes in governing the Matebeleland.

• The Ndebele were redistributed new lands in the lowlands where they lived happily unperturbed by the company and European mistreatment.

• The Ndebele Indunas were considered and employed in various administrative positions under the BSAC administration.

• Most of the educated Ndebele were given responsibilities as administrators in Mashonaland.

• Mashonaland and Matebeleland were allocated to Most European settlers created their settlement in the fertile land that formerly belonged to Shona and Ndebele.

• Many Africans adopted Christianity due to the inability of Mwari cult and the Chanimuka (medium spirit) to defeat the Whiteman.

• Because of the failure in war the Mwari cult leaders could no longer command popularity in the eyes of a rising number of people abandoning traditional religion and adopting Christianity.

• The confrontations witnessed the unification of traditional foes against the shared enemy, a cohesion that was exploited well.

• The Ndebele's claims were recognized and were given worthy treatments from the whites, because the Ndebele looked for peace while the Shona persisted in war.

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What is the Meaning and Causes of the uprising of the Mashona and matebele or chimulenga war in zimbabwe 1896 - 1897

THE MASHONA-MATEBELE (CHIMULENGA) UPRISING IN ZIMBABWE (1896-1897)




The whites created their settlement in Mashonaland in 1890. They thought that the Shona might thank the whites and were grateful to them since they could protect them against their traditional rivals, the Ndebele. But the matter was not so. The whites had misconceptions about the Ndebele, for they thought that with the fall of Lobengula, the son of Mzilikazi, the Ndebele power was completely dwarfed and could not stage war. As a result, in 1896, the whites were caught by surprise, for there was a more or less joint uprising between the Shona and Ndebele. In April 1896, the Matebele started a war that spread like summer fire to the Mashona tribe. In June of the same year, the war broke out in Mashonaland. The war was motivated by outstanding political, social, and economic dissatisfactions against the white men.




The Causes of the uprising.

• Loss of land. The white alienated the better and fertile land of the Mashona. On the other hand, the Ndebele were pushed into the reserves, which had water shortage, this caused dissatisfaction and unrests hence people took up arms to resist this situation.

• Forced Labour. Africans in both Matebele and Mashona were forced to supply labour to the colonial settles. All able bodied men had to work regardless of their former status in the societies and they were recruited by armed force.

• Harsh treatment. The colonialists treated the Mashona and Matebele people harshly. The elderly people were flogged and killed in public, and the conditions in the mines were deplorable.

• Taxation policies. In 1894, Hut tax was introduced; some of the Shona chiefs and their people refused new laws introduced by the colonial administration as well as British ways of collecting taxes. Those who failed to pay tax were persecuted and jailed without trial.

• Low wages. Africans who were forced to work in mines and whites farms were paid lowly although they worked for long hours and heavy works.

• The abolition of Induna age regiments among the Matebele. The Matebele were made to suffer socially and psychologically. Indunas were deprived of their power, importance and position.

• Interference in the Shona trade. The desire of British South Africa Company to control trade in the Mashona land contributed to the uprising.

• Desire for their lost independence. The Ndebele people resisted in order to regain their post independence, none of the Induna was appointed in any responsible administrative position.

• Missionaries disregarded the traditional and customs of the Shona and Ndebele people. In Matebele land, the missionaries wanted the Ndebele to change their religions based on Mwari cult.

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Reasons for why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated.

Why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated? 

(i) Anglo–French conspiracy. Between 1889 and 1890 Samori had reached an agreement with the British to supply arms to Samori’s armies up to 1896. But in 1896 the British breached the treaty by occupying Sierra Leone thus blocking Samori’s access to arms supplies. In the same year British forced occupied the Gold Coast making it impossible for Samori to form a military alliance with Ashanti.

(ii) Shortage of military weapons. Surrounded by enemies, Samori doubled efforts to manufacture arms within his empire. However, these were not sufficient for the' ever-increasing war demands. In 1889 the French managed to defeat Samori's forces. Samori was captured and exiled to Gabon where he died two years later.

(iii) Disunity among rulers. The resisters were unable to unite together as their enemy was common. Samori sought alliance with Ahmed Seku of Tukola and Tieba of Sikasso with no success. In fact, these rulers even assisted the French in defeating Samori.

(iv) A disciplined and well-organized army helped to defeat Africans. The colonial armies were better-trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics. Hence the armies led by Samori Toure did not stand a chance. Thus the Africans were taught a lesson, that those "modern" societies with institutionalized war and professionalism in modern fighting techniques could never be defeated by warfare.

(v) The Europeans wanted to preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly.

(vi) Instability and public misery were also a major factor in defeat. The wars of resistance of Samori Toure were fought with bitterness which culminated into greater devastation. Villages were set on fire, farmlands destroyed animals looted. This ended up with loss of property, year and famine and stirred up local resistances.

(vii) Lack of support from communities. The non- Mandika communities and non- Muslims in the empire did not give him full support because they had been mistreated during his leadership. Some decided to support the French forces against him.

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Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for so long?

Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for so long?



(i) Strong army. Samori Toure had established strong army of approximately 12,000 men and about 90,000 reserves. He had a standby army, trained military men who could be taken in emergence, cases to help the permanent army.

(ii) Modern weapons. Samori Toure had excess to modern arms that he had acquired from the coastal traders' that he had been friend with them. Samori Toure had established friendship with the coastal traders for quite some time, lie also had military workshops which supplied him with weapons and repaired his defected weapons.

(iii) Samori Toure had a lot of wealth from trade in slaves, gold and colanuts, which was utilized in rewarding his workers and soldiers for their services.

(iv) Some of the Samori soldiers had served in the French army where they had acquired modern military techniques and so were able to respond effectively to the invaders. These soldiers passed those skills to the rest of the Army.

(v) He was determined to maintain and preserve his independence in the eyes of Europeans advance. This motivated him to resist for a long time.

(vi) Samori Toure established state control of agriculture and markets to ensured regular food supply for the army. Availability of food to the soldiers encouraged them to fight for long time.

(vii) The use of guerrilla or commando tactics of surprise ambushes and right raids. This helped Samori Toure occasionally to win the war. The French soldiers found the Mandika people too difficult to control

(viii) He used scorched earth military technique such as burning villages and destroying crops in order to make the French starve when they reached the area.

(ix) Samori Toure got support from the Mandika people in national war of defense. This support helped Samori Toure to resist for a long time.

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Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898)?

Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898)?
(i) The French activities of selling arms to Samori's enemies, such as Tieba of Sikasso alarmed Samori Toure. The French' aimed at weakening the Mandika so as to acquire it smoothly.

(ii) Samori Toure was shocked by the failure of his plan of playing off the British against the French. He had signed an agreement with the British on non-interference in each other's sphere of influence. Unfortunately, the British refused to support Samori against the French.

(iii) Samori Toure wanted to protect the independence of his empire. The use of force by the French in acquiring colonies could not be tolerated by Samori Toure

(iv) The French wanted to conquer Mandika when Samori's empire had reached at its peak with military supremacy and economic prosperity. The French therefore threatened Samori's territorial expansion into areas which they claimed belonged to them.

(v) Samori wanted to safeguard trade. He was determined to, defend commercial centres and the trade routes and maintain regular supplies of firearms.

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What were the reactions to french invasion in West Africa

REACTION TO FRENCH INVASION IN WEST AFRICA




(i) Reaction to French invasion Senegambia

French military conquests in West Africa, were first directed against Senegambia during the rule of Mohmadou Lamine, and against Guinea then under Samori Toure. The major aim of the French was to capture the trading centers of Western Sudan and the strategic area between Upper Senegal and Niger. They had already built warehouses and fortresses along these rivers to control trade in palm oil, groundnuts, and gold from the interior. However, the power base of African ruling classes lay in the control of this trade. This was one of the factors of the conflict between the French imperialists forces and the African rulers.




The French employed a number of techniques to conquer the territory One of this was to- utilize existing local differences, or to initiate new conflicts between African ruling groups. To be able to conquer Senegambia, the French formed alliances with the empires of Tukulor under Sheikh Ahmaddu, Bandu Empire under Umar Penda and Khasso under Luku Sambala. In so doing the French managed to' conquer and subjugate the weaker states.




(ii) Reaction to French Invasion of Guinea

Samori Toure of Guinea illustrates for many people the courage and determination of African resistance to European conquest. Samori Toure was successful for sixteen years in preventing his own state from being colonized by the French. Although he was ultimately defeated, the duration of his resistance was in itself a victory, which can only be understood by looking back to the earlier period of his life.




Samori Toure was born into a Malinke family, the first child of a -farmer who had strongly family connections with the Dyula, the trading community of the Malinke people. The Dyula lived in the great commercial centers on the northern edge of the West African forest belt separating the inland regions from the Gulf of Guinea. They were also very famous in the commercial centers along the trans-Sahara trade routes such as Timbuktu, Taghaza and Walata. Commodities such as cloth, iron tools and salt were carried by the Dyula merchants and exchanged with forest products such as palm oil, kola nuts, and ivory. Firearms also occupied a very important position in-this trade.




At the age of eighteen he asked to be released from his duties on the farm and be allowed to join the Dyula. For about five years he built, up strong, business and made many contacts throughout the Western Sudan. This life was interrupted in 1852 when his mother 'was made captive by Soni Birama, the King of Bisandugu.Samori offered his services as a soldier to Soni Birama in return for his mother's freedom.




Samori's power and leadership attracted many followers and within a few years he found that he was strong enough to be independent of Soni Birama, He set out to control the whole of Malinke land and thus to maintain peace, law and order. He was joined by many minor leaders and supported, by his family.




By 1879 his territory had stretched from Sierra Leone to the Ivory Coast in the West from Bamako in the north to the Liberian borders in the south. His authority was based more on his military power than on his religious leadership. His arm was composed of young captives, soldiers trained mostly as foot soldiers-the infantry. His army could have at total of ten or twelve thousand fully equipped soldiers.




Samori determined to defend commercial centers and the trade routes, always sought to acquire and maintain regular supplies of firearms, ammunitions and horses for his army. He was helped by the Dyula merchants in this endeavour. The merchants obtained the firearms through trade with European merchants. Samori further maintained a group of skillful craftsmen who repaired and even made guns.




In 1882, French forces of occupation started advancing towards Bamako. They demanded that Samori should keep away from the large Bambara and Mandingo markets. Samori rejected the demand and managed to keep the French off up to 1890. From 1891 to 1898 Samori conducted guerrilla warfare. He organized an excellent system of military intelligence to spy on enemy troop movements.

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What are the effects or Impacts of Majimaji Resistance of 1905 - 1907

Impacts of Majimaji Resistance 

(i) The Majimaji resistance made Germans ruler to reform their administration so as to avoid, another uprising in Tanganyika. These reforms were made under Governor Lord Rothenberg. They also changed their attitudes towards Africans. Governor Rothenberg introduced some important measures to improve Africa services, like education and health, farming and communication system. He also rejected extra taxation of Africans and abolished corporal punishment; The Governor recognized traditional chiefs, stopped forced labour and began to punish German settlers who mistreated the African workers. 

 

(ii) It brought together many African communities such as Ngindo, Zaramo, Ngoni and Matumbi to resist against the European invaders

(iii) It led to the destruction of properties since the Germans used the scorched-earth policy which involved burning of villages and crops in all areas with African forces.

(iv) A large number of Africans lost their lives. It is estimated that between 75,000 and 120,000 Africans, including their leaders and soldiers, were killed by the German forces while other people died of diseases and starvation. A large part of the southern Tanganyika became depopulated

(v) The Majimaji resistance led to the emergence of severe famine since the German soldiers destroyed farms and granaries during the war. This period of famine was known as funga funga period among the people of southeastern Tanganyika.

(vi) The Majimaji resistance led to the displacement of many African families during the war. Due to fear and insecurity, many people escaped to different directions to look for other areas of settlement where they thought to be peaceful. The war also influenced family separation among the African communities.

(vii) The war laid the foundation for nationalism in Tanganyika, because after the uprising Africans learnt a lot and adopted a new method of resistance against colonial in Tanganyika and disregarded their ethnic differences.

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Why Africans defeated or failed in Majimaji War of 1905 - 1907

Causes for African Defeat 

(i) Africans employed poor weapons such as arrows, spears and outdated guns against their enemies who used superior automatic machines like machine guns. They also lacked fighting skills and were poorly organized as opposed to their counterpart, the Germans, who were well trained and organized.

(ii) The, Germans were supported in many ways, such as weapons and mercenary soldiers from Sudan, Germany, New Guinea, and Somalia. All these reinforced the Germans and led to emergence of large army, which could attack Africans strongly and effectively.

(iii) The Africans lacked military communication infrastructures. They failed to communicate between one ethnic group and another. Every ethnic group fought in isolation in different areas and their leaders had different motives and grievances.

(iv) Failure of magic water 'Majimaji' to turn German bullets into water and protect the African fighters. A large number of the warriors were killed during the war hence others lost faith over their religion.

(v) The Majimaji uprising covered a small area, hence failing to cooperate a number of African powerful communities, like the Nyamwezi and Hehe in the interior. These powerful communities could bring support to African forces.

(vi) The effect of scorched-earth policy employed by Germans. This policy involved destruction of African residences and destroying crops and property, thus famine caused deaths among –the African fighters since many of them were starving.

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What is the meaning and causes of Majimaji resistance of 1905 - 1907

MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE (1905- 1907)

It is not possible to recognize any simple pattern in African resistance to European rule. Samori fought a long defensive battle against the French. Lobengula saw the futility of military resistance. People such as Nandi reacted immediately in violent manner to the British advance. Other groups, having failed to put up much of a resistance at first; were persuaded to rebel against the European later. Often a rekindling of traditional religious belief was combined with armed rebellion. An example of such a revolt was the Maji-Maji Rising of 1905-1907 in Tanzania.




The Majimaji resistance broke out in the southern Tanganyika against the German control. This is a large and popular African uprising in Africa. The term "Majimaji" is derived from Swahili word "Maji" which -means water. Majimaji was magic water drawn from river Rufiji and mixed up with maize and millet flour after mixing up the water was thrown on the various fighters so as to protect them from German bullets in war, The leader of the Maji maji uprising was known as Kinjekitile Ngware, who lived at Ngarambe in Southern Tanganyika. He organized his followers 'and began to fight in July 1905, the Matumbi of Nandete in Rufiji were the first to take up arms.




Majimaji uprising was highly mobilized and its followers possessed courage as well as determination against the German rule in Tanganyika. It took a wide coverage' and speeded very fast from Matumbi of Nandele in Rufiji to other areas like Uluguru, Masasi, the Makonde plateau, Songea, the Kilombero Valley, North Dar es Salaam and the Mahenge plateau. In these areas African communities such as Zaramo, Ngoni, Bena, Mwera, Ngindo, Pogoro, Mbunga, Ndendeule and Luguru united together to fight against German rule.




Causes of Majimaji Resistance
(i) The forced cotton growing that was ordered by the German government in 1902. The Akidas were ordered by the governor to establish cotton plots where African communities of southern Tanzania had to work with little pay or provide a free labour, they also worked under inhuman. This situation dissatisfied the people and decided to take up arms against Germans.

(ii) Forced labour was another African grievance. Africans were forced to work on railway construction as well as settler farms. Africans were humiliated by the Germans and friends while working. Generally, the colonial treatment towards Africans was inhuman.

(iii) The imposition of heavy taxes and fines on Africans by he Germans, the taxes were unfair and had to be paid in the form of money. For example, the tax imposed for hut was to be paid in form of money for about three rupees. But Africans did not have money; the only way of getting money was through selling labour power to the Germans to earn money to pay different taxes imposed. The collection of tax aimed at raising the revenue for the colonial administration but this system was new to the Africans. They were also discontented because the colonialist used their land for production while at the same time forced them to pay taxes.

(iv) The Germans disregarded African traditional beliefs and practices, such as dances and circumcision. They overlooked the African religious leaders and condemned sacred places as the areas of African witchcraft. The disruption of traditional practices disappointed the Africans thus decided to stageresistance against Germans.

(v) The hostile and harsh treatment of the people by the German appointees, such as the Akidas. Akidas and their local police treated African people brutally. Their ruthless ruling system also discredited Africans hence lived like slaves.

(vi) African people wanted to regain their lost independence. Most of the young men felt that they had lost their manhood by submitting to the Germans. The German occupation at the initial stage involved different ways which resulted into disunity among the Africans. Later Africans realized the need to unite together so as to-fight against common enemy, that is, German foreigners.

(vii) Africans wanted to oppose adultery, rapping and fornication exercised by German mercenaries and their houseboys. These practices were crimes to African communities and the offenders had to be punished. This was predominant among the Ngindo communities. But the Germans and their houseboys exercised all the practices that were regarded as crimes and disregarded the Ngindo taboo. The local communities, especially the Ngindo, were discontented with these events hence took up arms against Germans.

(viii) The Ngoni people wanted to revenge for the killings of 1898. During the initial stage of imposing German rule, a large number of Ngoni people were murdered and their properties destroyed or taken by German forces. This event created bitterness, hence resulting into taking up of arms by Ngoni’s against Germans.

(ix) The influence of Kinjekitile, who was an. effective leader with ability of organizing people, instilled confidence in the African people by requesting them to unite and take up arms against the German invaders. The Kinjekitile's force believed that they would be immune to German bullets as the water sprinkled on them would turn the bullets into water. The Majimaji resistance ended in. 1907 and African forces were defeated by the Germans. Many fighters were killed and those who survived lost the hope as the 'magic' water had failed to protect them from German bullets. Most of the fighters escaped to Mozambique, many were hanged while others surrendered to the Germans.

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The background of Abushiri and Bwana heri Resistance

ABUSHIRI AND BWANA HERI RESISTANCE 

This was African reaction along the coastal region where rich Arabs and local merchants had invested in coconut and cereal plantations in a large scale as well as trade activities. These plantation activities depended much on the interior, but the German company suppressed slave trade, hence affected the supply of labour to plantations. This event threatened the Arabs and, local merchant plantation owners. In 1888" the company agents imposed taxes and began to collect it from all people including feudal lords and rich merchants.




The coastal African resistance was led by Abushiri bin Salumel Hathi of Pangani. He organized his force and began to fight in August 1888, when the German company officials established themselves and hoisted the German flag in all the major coastal towns. In other cases, they opposed mosques and began to regulate the trade along caravan routes. The fighting extended to many coastal areas, thus other coastal people in Bagamoyo also joined the Abushiri's force against Germans.




The Abushiri resistance became so stiff that, the British joined the German forces by utilizing their naval forces, which had been used to suppress slave trade in the Indian Ocean, In order to make effective suppression, the German Chancellor sent major Hermann Von Wissman, a soldier and an, explorer with experience in different East African areas, He commanded German forces and recruited Mercenaries with the aim of' employing this force to crush the Abushiri uprising. These mercenaries comprised 600 Sudanese, 20 Turkish police, 400 Zulus, 21 officers and some soldier's from Tanganyika.




Starting from May, 1889, the German forces, under Major Von Wissman, were suppressing the Abushiri and regained most of the coastal towns within a few months: Finally, the leaders of this resistance were weakened, thus failing to co-ordinate their attacks. They faced strong German counter-attack. Abushiri fled to Mpwapwa in the Interior but he was weakened by Major Von Wissmans attack when German forces attacked Mpwapwa. Abushiri’s efforts were also affected by a person known as Magaya-a Jumbe orvillage headman in Usagara who betrayed him to the Germans. At the end Abushiri was captured and publicly hanged on 15th December, 1889.




Another coastal resistance was led by Bwana Heri of Uzigua, who fought against German forces since January 1889, when the German forces captured Saadani. Bwana Heri escaped to the interior where he built a fortress and staged a strong resistance against German forces until April 1890. Later on, Bwana Heri surrendered and ran away. After suppressing Abushiri and Bwana Heri the German forces faced another strong resistance in the southern coastal areas of Tanganyika. This was led by Hassani Bin Omari Makunganya of Kilwa. He organized and led a strong attack against German fortress in Kilwa, but he was defeated by the German forces. After his defeat, Hassan bin Omari fled to the inland where he organized another attack. However, the Germans realized his plan and pre-empted it.




Finally, Hassan bin Omari Makunganya was captured and hanged on a mango tree in Kilwa Kivinje, in May 1890. Since then, the mango tree was used by Germans for hanging all African victims publicly so as to threaten and warn Africans not to engage in further revolts and alert those who disobeyed' the government orders. The coastal active resistance against Germans was brought to an end by the defeat and hangings of Omari bin Hassan Makunganya.

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THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE 1891 - 1894

THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE 1891 - 1894

This was another reaction against Germany colonial rule which was staged by Nyarnwezi under Chief, Isike. Initially the Nyamwezi had business relations with Germans, they conducted trade together. But later on the Nyamwezi realized that the German's intention of monopolizing their trade which passed through their land to important trading centres like Ujiji; and Mwanza, controlling land and ruling them. In order to avoid the German control, Chief Isike organized his people to take up arms and closed the trade routes for number of months. Due to poor weapons Nyamwezi were defeated by the well organized and equipped German forces. In 1893 Chief Isike's fort was badly destroyed by German forces. Chief Isike decided to blow up himself together with his family ·in the gun powder magazine rather than being captured by the Germans.

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The Origin or background of the Hehe Resistance of 1891-1898

 THE HEHE RESISTANCE 1891-1898



This was one among the most notable active small scale resistances, which were very fierce since they involved military action sand was well organized. The leader of this reaction was Chief Mkwawa who is also known as chief Mkwavinyika. The name Mkwavinyika means the conqueror of lands. The Hehe resistance was caused by the German occupation of several areas in Mainland Tanganyika (the present day Tanzania) such as Ugogo, Ukaguru, Usagara and Mpwapwa, which had economic importance to the Hehe ruling class. These occupied areas were potential for trade activities thus German occupation threatened the economic position of Hehe ruling class.



Before taking up arms, Chief Mkwavinyika (Mkwawa) sent a delegation with present to meet the German administrators at the coast. 

The Germans responded by requesting the chief to surrender his sovereignty and they showed a disregard of the Chief Mkwavinyika's request by killing all the men in his delegation. Chief Mkwavinyika reacted by blocking all- the' caravan routes passing through the area to disrupt the German trade, hence they failed to obtain raw materials from the interior. This event angered the German rulers and decided to send a military force led by commander of German forces. Chief 

Mkwavinyika's force managed to defeat the German forces on 16th August 1891 at Lugalo. 

The defeat was associated with killing of several people, including commander of the German forces, Emil Von Zelewsky, and three hundred (300) African soldiers. The Mkwavinyika's army also captured about three (3) cannons and three hundred (300) rifles from the German forces. The defeat of German by the Hehe actually shocked the colonial administration and showed the strength of Hehe's army. After three years the German prepared their force for another attack.


Before attacking the Hehe empire, the German administrators sent a delegation to chief Mkwavinyika which required him to pay for the war indemnity he 'had caused on Germans, recognizing the Kaiser's sovereignty, surrender the war weapons he captured at first attack, stop conquering the neighboring territory and allow the European Missionaries and traders to access the Uhehe by the routes he blocked. Chief Mkwawa rejected all the demands.




Germans attacked the Hehe in October 1894 and managed to capture Kalenga, which was Mkwavinyika's capital. He escaped and organized a guerrilla warfare, which extended for about four years. Later on the German patrol caught up Mkwavinyika in July 1898, and surrounded him while he was very tired, sick and alone; he decided to shoot himself rather than being captured while still alive. This marked the decline of the Hehe ruling class and the beginning of German control.

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What were the reasons for African resistance against colonial domination

Armed or Active resistance

It is the form of reaction involved the use of weapons by Africans to fight against Europeans and prevent them from imposing colonial rule in their territories. Example of active or armed resistance in Africa include the Mandinka in west Africa, Majimaji in Tanganyika, Nama and Herero uprising in Namibia, Shona and Ndebele uprising in Zimbabwe and Nandi resistance in Kenya.

Passive resistance

Refers to unarmed opposition. It also means the adaptation of non-cooperative measures with the colonial powers but without using violence. This can be exemplified by the Pogoro of Tanzania who refused to involve in colonial activities like cotton picking.




Reasons for African resistance against colonial domination

• Some leaders resisted colonial powers in order to defend social and political sovereignty. For example, Kabarega of Bunyoro fought the British, Mkwawa of the Hehe and Abushiri resisted the Germans in Tanganyika.

• Africans wanted to preserve their monopolies. Until 1890’s the African trade merchants were conducting trade between the coastal areas and the interior. For example, the Nyamwezi under Isike and the Yao under Machemba resisted Germans because the later interfered the long distance trade and wanted to control it and collect tax.

• African rulers resisted colonialism due to its repressive administrative and economic policies. For example, the Belgians in Congo and Germans in Namibia, Tanganyika and Togo were very repressive against the native.

• African wanted to defend their religious practices and culture as in the case of the Maji Maji uprising (1905-1907), the Shona and Ndebele resistance (1896-1897).

• Some had to resist because the white man’s Christianity opposed certain African practices such as polygamy, drinking beer, spiritual and ancestral worship and human sacrifices.

• Other societies resisted because they believed that they were politically and military strong as they unaware of European military strength. For example, Chief Machemba of Yao in Makonde believed that his troops could smash easily that of the Germany.

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What were the reasons for African collaboration.

  Collaboration or Alliance

Collaboration means the cooperation between Africans and European invaders. It can be explained as adaptation. This method involved forming alliance with the Europeans against indigenous enemies and concluding treaties. Example of African societies, which made alliance with the Europeans were Creoles, Maasai, Baganda and Lozi.




Reasons for African collaboration.

• Some societies allied with the foreigners because they were incapable of holding out the invaders and they saw that it was fruitless to fight, as they weak military.

• Some African leaders sought an alliance with the Europeans as they considered that it was one of the means of avoiding confrontation and keeping off their rival neighbors. Example, the Baganda and Omukama Kasagama of Toro allied with the British because they were afraid of Kabarega of Bunyoro who was strong military.

• African hoped to gain from the Europeans or even acquire arms from them. Examples are the Nambongo Mumia of Waga and Mutesa I of Buganda.

• Some collaborated because they desired to have atmosphere of peace and promote human development for they had been subjected to constant war fare that disrupted the harmony and evolution of economic sector like trade in their societies. Example Yoruba who had been constantly tortured by Ibadan, the Fante by the Asante and the Toro of Bunyoro.

• Most rulers collaborated because they were ignorant of European intention. They were fooled by presents and bribes and were sometime persuaded to sign treaties beyond their understanding. Example Mwanga of Buganda and in West Africa Jaja of Opobo and Samori Toure.

• Some Africans made alliance with Europeans because they had suffered greatly from natural calamities. Therefore they sought that Europeans would bring them relief aid. Example the Kikuyu, Maasai, the Chagga and Sambaa would have certainly resisted the imposition of colonial rule if epidemics had not exerted adverse effects.

• Individual Africans made friendship with colonialists because they were opportunistic self-seekers hoping to acquire wealth, prestige, rewards and other presents. For example, Semei Kakunguru of Buganda, Nuwa Mbaguta of Ankole and Wanyiki of Kikuyu, all these had personal interests and ambitions.

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What were the techniques used to impose or establish Colonialism in Africa

ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL CONTROL AND AFRICA REACTION

Colonialism is the political, social and economic system in which one powerful nation invades and dominated the foreign weak nation by establishing exploitative structure in a country. The country which is dominated by the powerful nation is known as a colony where by those people from powerful nation or colonizing nation, who lead the colonized country are known as colonialists. The establishment of colonial control in Africa was made effective between 1885 and 1912 whereby all African countries became under colonial rule except Ethiopia and Liberia, which were not colonized. To achieve the objectives of controlling African continent, different approaches were used by the colonial power to impose colonial rule in Africa. The type of techniques used depended on reactions posed by the Africans. These techniques were;



1. Treaty making (Diplomacy)

European powers signed treaties with various African rulers from different territories. In most cases, these treaties served the interest of the colonizers. This was the most suitable way of imposing colonial rule over different African territories.



Such treaties were bogus and misled the local rulers in many ways such as they promised to protect Africans rulers from external forces as well as supplying weapons. Example Dr. Karl Peters signed many treaties with Chief Mangungo of Msovero on behalf of Germany East Africa Company; Kabaka Mwanga signed treaties with Imperial British East Africa Company in 1890 and 1902 under Fredrick Lugard. After the treaties African countries fell under the control of European powers.



2. Alliance of Collaboration

This method involves the alliance or collaboration between the colonizing power and African societies or with some local agents in order to occupy the land of neighboring societies. These alliances intensified divisions among African societies. Example, in Tanganyika Germans collaborated with Sangu and Bena against their neighbors, the Hehe. The collaboration gave them hope of making revenge to Hehe who had been enemies for a long time.



3. Military force and conquest

This tactics were used in areas where the colonizing power faced strong resistance from the Africans societies, military conquest was common tactic and it was employed either directly or indirectly. For example Portuguese employed military force and conquest to impose their rule in colonies of Mozambique and Angola while the British used the same tactics to administer the area led by Kabarega of Bunyoro in Uganda.



4. Intimidation

This means creating fear among the people by European by demonstrating their military strength or capability very close to the local rulers who did not accept colonial rule. Sometimes it was the form of military training near African villages, which were reluctant and sometime it was associated with actual killings. Example Germans used this method in 1884 to force the sultan of Zanzibar to sign Karl Peter’s treaty, the British forced Jaja of Opobo to submit his Kingdom.

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