The impact of some Social Cultural practise in Africa

Negative Aspects

1. Female Genital mutilation; According to the world Health organization is define as all procedure that involve partial or total removal of the external genitalia or other intentional mutilation of the female genital organs, whether for cultural or any other non therapeutic reason.

2. In inheritance of widows; This is practice of taking a woman (widow) after the death of her husband. This act has negative effective because it can lead to the contracting of the HIV/AIDS if one of the partners is a victim of HIV/AIDS. This act is also a violation of human right because it turns the woman as object of pleasure and sometimes the property of the inherited widow are taken by the new husband and the humans left with nothing.

3. Early and forced marriage; Early marriage is the situation where by a person gets married while he/she is below the legally acceptable age for having marriage i.e below 18 years for a boy, 15 years for a girl. Forced marriage refers to a situation in which a boy or girl is being forced by parents or relatives to get marriage to a person he/she don’t want. This practices is more common to girls than boys. Both early and forced marriages have contributed to several negative effects including marital conflicts which in turn lead to separation and divorce hence leads to an increase of street children.

4. Polygamism; this is the situation whereby on man get married to many wives. This practice can also leads to having many children that parents may fails to take care of them thus end up being street children.

5. Belief in witchcraft; Is common among some illiterate societies has greatly contributed to various negative effects. The notable effect include the killing of the innocent people include the old women with red eyes due to some allegation that they are the one ones who bewitch other people. This practice is very common in area like Shinyanga and Mwanza in Tanzania.

6. The killing of twins and handicapped people, in some tradition societies twins and other people with handicaps such as albino were being killed due to the belief that having such as people in the family or societies was a curse from the God and if such people are left the society will be facing misfortunes. However, in recent years the killing of the albinos has been associated with the belief that some of their body organs bring fortunes to people engaging in various activities such as business, especially in the mining and commercial sector. This belief has contributed much to the killing of albinos in different part of our country.

7. Paying of bride price; Is payment made to the parent of daughter or women who is to be marriage by the person or the family of man who want to marry. The paying of bride price has led to misconception that the married women has been bought just like any other items. As a result of this misconception same man in some societies tend to mistreat their wives.

8. Food taboos; These refer to practices where by women and girls are restricted or forbidden from taking same kind of food varieties especially those, which are delicious and nutritious such as eggs, liver. Chickens etc. These practices may have negative effects on omen health.


IMPACTS OF NEGATIVE ASPECT OF CULTURAL VALUE

Female genital mutilation this can lead to various effects such as;

1. Prolonged bleeding during and after the mutilation.

2. Disturbance of the natural vaginal elasticity during delivery due to the scar left after mutilation

3. Reduction of sexual pleasure during sexual intercourse

4. Spread of sexually Transmitted infection because the instrument used are not sterilized and are used by the whole group being circumcised

5. Death because of excessive bleeding and STI’S Such as AIDS/HIV

Gender biases can lead to;

· Unequal distribution of powers in a community

· Women being left out in areas of development

· Lack of spirit of competition hence poor performance

· Few women in managerial and decision making levels

· Violence and aggression.

Belief and practices of witchcraft can lead to;

· Transmission of STI'S

· Despise modern health services

· Family conflict.

· Unnecessary death

Inheritance of spouse (widow) can lead to;

· Contact of STI'S

· Conflicts

Early marriages can lead to;

· Toxemia

· Long difficult labour

· Blocked birth which may damage the bladder, vagina and womb

· Deaths

Polygamy can lead to;

· Rapid population increase

· Transition of STI'S

· Death

· Street dwellers.

Forced marriage may lead to;

· Family conflicts

· Contracting of STI'S

Bride price can lead to;

· Violation of sexual human rights

· Forced marriage with its accompanied impact

· Domestic violence

The most outstanding gender concept among other includes the following;

Gender discrimination; It is the situation in which one kind of the sex in the society is denied of its right and opportunities simply because of belong to that sex category.

Gender oppression; It is the situation whereby a certain sexual category is treated harshly or oppressed simply because it belong to that category for example giving heavy tasks and depriving of their important social needs.

Gender gap; It is an inequality in job accessibility between two different sexes. Culturally, some societies give men the first priority to job opportunities than women. This situation prevails in both public and private sector in many developing countries, including Tanzania where whereby most attractive and highly paying job are occupied by men.

Gender inequality; Is a situation whereby a certain kind of sex in a society is given priority in all aspect of life at the expense of another sex. For example inmost African societies women are marginalized in all sphere of life while men are favored.

Gender equity; This is the principle of fairness and justice that advocate gender equality such as principle include making of laws which prevent men from undermining and denying them of their rights.

Gender equality; This refers to a situation whereby there is no kind of practice which undermines a certain sex. It is the situation whereby there is equal treatment of both male and female in all aspects of their lives.

Gender analysis; It is the systematic efforts to identify, analyze, document and understand the roles of men and women within a given context. It is about who does what, who has access to and control over what, benefits from what etc.

Gender sensitive planning; It is the planning that considers both women and men in term of needs. These needs are planned equally. Generally, there are has been some effort for discouraging bad cultural practices that undermine women worldwide. Due to these efforts, the people consciousness about gender equality have been raised hence, made to see the importance of analyzing gender, formulation principle of enhancing gender equality and waged war against the multicultural practices such as child labour and female Genital Mutilation.

Gender Mainstreaming; This refers to ideas about a given gender that are considered ordinary or normal, hence, accepted by most people in societies. It is a global strategy for promoting gender equality. Mainstreaming involves insuring that gender perspectives and attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities, policy development, research resource allocation, planning implementation and monitoring of programmers and project.

Gender stereo typing; This refer to people perception and attitudes create by the socialization institution

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Social Cultural practise which affect women in Africa

Negative Aspects

1. Female Genital mutilation; According to the world Health organization is define as all procedure that involve partial or total removal of the external genitalia or other intentional mutilation of the female genital organs, whether for cultural or any other non therapeutic reason.

2. In inheritance of widows; This is practice of taking a woman (widow) after the death of her husband. This act has negative effective because it can lead to the contracting of the HIV/AIDS if one of the partners is a victim of HIV/AIDS. This act is also a violation of human right because it turns the woman as object of pleasure and sometimes the property of the inherited widow are taken by the new husband and the humans left with nothing.

3. Early and forced marriage; Early marriage is the situation where by a person gets married while he/she is below the legally acceptable age for having marriage i.e below 18 years for a boy, 15 years for a girl. Forced marriage refers to a situation in which a boy or girl is being forced by parents or relatives to get marriage to a person he/she don’t want. This practices is more common to girls than boys. Both early and forced marriages have contributed to several negative effects including marital conflicts which in turn lead to separation and divorce hence leads to an increase of street children.

4. Polygamism; this is the situation whereby on man get married to many wives. This practice can also leads to having many children that parents may fails to take care of them thus end up being street children.

5. Belief in witchcraft; Is common among some illiterate societies has greatly contributed to various negative effects. The notable effect include the killing of the innocent people include the old women with red eyes due to some allegation that they are the one ones who bewitch other people. This practice is very common in area like Shinyanga and Mwanza in Tanzania.

6. The killing of twins and handicapped people, in some tradition societies twins and other people with handicaps such as albino were being killed due to the belief that having such as people in the family or societies was a curse from the God and if such people are left the society will be facing misfortunes. However, in recent years the killing of the albinos has been associated with the belief that some of their body organs bring fortunes to people engaging in various activities such as business, especially in the mining and commercial sector. This belief has contributed much to the killing of albinos in different part of our country.

7. Paying of bride price; Is payment made to the parent of daughter or women who is to be marriage by the person or the family of man who want to marry. The paying of bride price has led to misconception that the married women has been bought just like any other items. As a result of this misconception same man in some societies tend to mistreat their wives.

8. Food taboos; These refer to practices where by women and girls are restricted or forbidden from taking same kind of food varieties especially those, which are delicious and nutritious such as eggs, liver. Chickens etc. These practices may have negative effects on omen health.

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What are the social Cultural values that do not affects women in Africa

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ASPECT OF OUR CULTURAL VALUES

Positive aspects

1) Respect and hospitality; Refer to polite behavior that a person has towards other especially those he/she thinks are older or important to him/ her. For example in many societies the children are taught various way through which they should show respect. Those include greeting, receiving and handling property. How to talk to the elder etc. Through these way children grow up knowing how well they can behave in their families and community at large.

2) Caring for other people and property; Among the people who may need special care in the society are children, old people, disabled, the sick people and other people with special problem. It is a positive cultural value to help people belonging to the mentioned group to get various services because they are the most disadvantages.

3) Proper dressing; As one of the important cultural value proper dressing helps to maintain ones personality. It makes people look smart and acceptable to other member of the society. Currently in many societies there is an increase of parent outcry over the whole issue of indecent dressing among the youth. This problem is associated with the ongoing globalization process which among other things contribute to the decline in moral is the societies and more particular to the youth.

4) Hard working; This is another positive cultural value, certainly because through hardworking the people in the societies are able to produce more and better quality goods and service for the individual and national development.

5) Accountability and transparency; Refer to a situation in which a person is held responsible for a certain task assigned to him/her and she /he may be expected to give satisfactory explanations concerning that task if there is any to need so. Transparency for that matter it means openness or without secret. Accountability and transparency are therefore important cultural value that should be promoted by the society.0nce these are observed the society expectation and wishes can be easily met.

6) Honest; This refer to a state of person being fair and trustful. It is another important cultural value that any society is supported to impart to its member .If this value is successfully imparted to the society member the immoral practices such as corruption, theft, embezzlement of public found etc. can be minimized.

7) Patriotism; This refers to a situation in which one loved his/ her country. Patriotism is an important cultural aspect since it enables the member of a given country to participate fully in the development activities in their country. Because of the love for their country people can even be ready to die for it.

8) Co-operation or participation in various social activities; Is important culture value because it helps to create unity and increase strength towards accomplishment of certain task for the sake of attaining common goals in the society.

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The meaning of culture and its Element

CULTURE

December 26, 2017 0


What is culture?

Culture is the total way of life in a given society.

Is a phenomenon that is practiced by all societies in the world. As a universal phenomenon it has bees held as a mankind asset which un-holds and perpetuates his time announced virtues. Culture links the past and present and synthesize man achievement and as nation.


Culture can be defined as a total way of life of particular society in a given time and environment as a total way of life it embraces all that has been created by man excluding all that has been given to him by nature. Therefore it includes thing like art and craft, language, education, politics, beliefs, technology, symbol, value, norms, customs, tradition and many others.

Culture is acquired or absorbed by man through living and participate in the cultural life of his group and changed by contact which outside cultures or inspiration from within.


IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE

The notable importance of culture include the following;

1. First, through culture a society passes on the knowledge, skill and wisdom from the elders to the young generation. Culture for that matter is used as a medium of bringing up the young to become respectable member of their society. Such knowledge and skill are passed on to the young generation through various cultural activities such as initiation ceremonies.

2. Another importance of culture is that teaches the youth about various social values such as language, taboos and beliefs of the societies. It can also inculcate political and economic values and beliefs of the societies. It can also inculcates political and economic values of the society

3. Third importance of culture is that, it serves as an identity of a particular society. Culture helps one society to be easily identified from other societies, or a nation from other nation. For example people from Tanzania can easily be identified from other people of East Africa simply because of the fluent speaking of Kiswahili language when compared with people from Kenya and Uganda. Maasai people can be identified from other people just because of their style of dressing known as "LUBEGA" and the way they plait or cut hairs which is quite different from other societies.

4. Fourthly, culture is importance because it helps to promote unity among the people. It binds people together as one society or nation. This becomes possible because of the same culture value that the member of the particular society share together such value includes things like language, taboos, customs etc.

5. The fifth importance of culture is that it exposes the younger to tasks similar those of their elders. This is achieved through such things initiation ceremonies where both the girl and the boys are given special training concerning with proper morals of their societies. Another place where the young ones learn various tasks similar to that of their elder is in the family. Family as the first institution of socialism play a significant role in educating the young ones about various task similar to those of their family member and their society in general.

6. Through work of art culture can serve as a means of providing people with enjoyment or entertainment. For examples various kinds of tradition dances, music, sport and games etc. are used for entertainment people after long period of work or passing through hard or difficulties such as war, hunger etc. Cultural traditional dances, music and game are also used to entertain people during various ceremonies such as wedding birthday and many others.

7. Lastly, culture equips the young people with insightful knowledge concerning with bad and good cultural practices. This help to refrain them from bad cultural that might have a bad impact to them.

ASPECT OF CULTURE

Culture consists of two main aspects;


1. · Material culture

2. · Intellectual culture/ non material culture

1. MATERIAL CULTURE

Material culture refers to tangible or physical artifacts (objects) made by human being. They include such things like spears, cooking pots, houses, coins, computer, stools, sofa sets and many others. These cultural objects reflect the nature of the society in which they were made. Material culture shows the extent to which man has achieved in mastering the nature. Such achievement include the level reached in the production of the instruments of labour, the technical skills developed, the scientific organization of labour, the availability of everyday needs of human and many others achievements.

2. INTELLECTUAL CULTURE/NON-MATERIAL CULTURE

Non - material culture: These are intangible or abstract creations of human society. They include such things like values, beliefs, symbols, norms, language and institutional arrangements.

ELEMENT OF CULTURE

The following are the element of culture;


· Cooperation

· Language

· Law

· Customs

· Tradition

· Ideology

· Recreation

· Art and creation

· Norms

· Fashion

There are ten element of culture

i) Cooperation

These elements manifest themselves in physical and social bond of the society in various activities. It gives chances for members to learn and do things together in community e.g. harvesting, initiation ceremonies

ii) Norms and laws

Law is a deliberately from adopted rules of behavior that are enforced by spend authority.

Are social rules that guide behavior. They specify the behavior that is appropriate or not in a given society. Norms give as guideline an hour we should act so that we can get with our daily activity. Norms have to categories Mores and Folkways.

· Mores- Are those norms which society considers them to be of great Moral significance. Those who violate them are defined as sinful, evil, wicked and offender. The punishment to them is various including death, imprisonment torture e.c.t. Such more that may lead to harsh punishment are also called taboos e.g. murder, treason, rape, theft e.c.t.

· Folkways- these are customary and habitual ways by which the members of a group do things. Folkways are considered as less important norms in which the violators of them get mild punishment. Example of the common folkways is time for appointment, greetings and washing clothes.

iii) Arts and crafts

As elements of culture arts are expression, which reflect feelings attitude and the level of development of a given society as struggling for existence and survival in a particular environment. These achievements could either be bound, political or economic ones.

· Craft- Refers to the objects fashioned or created and used by a particular society example of craft include furniture, clay pots, baskets, sculptures, graphics and many others. Crafts can also reflect the cultural values and technology of the concerned society.

iv) Recreation

Reaction means relaxing and amusing work makes the body and mind to get tired so that mean med a roast. E.g. To participates in sports and games or dance hand: of show ground where sports and games are formed.

v) Ideology

Is a systematized and interconnected set of ideas about the social- economic and political organization of society as a whole. It contains ideals, ends purposes that a society should pursue. Ideology lay down the principle and condition to be followed by given society.

vi) Tradition

Traditions resemble custom they are experienced of the past are inherited by a society and they are unchangeable. Examples Marriage, funeral ceremonies, family care and courtship, sport and game.

vii) Language

Is a socially structured system of sound patterns, written words or signs with specific and arbitrary meaning used by a society for communication. It has a major role of creating interaction between and among people in short it binds the separate human lives together. Language is the most distinctive and complex achievement of human beings it is used to express physical and spiritual wishes.

viii) Customs

Customs these are pattern of habit, transmitted from one generation to another generation such customs include foods, clothes, shelter, argument, education, worship, names, greeting, love another generation such customs include foods, clothes, shelter, argument, education, worship, names, greeting, love and beauty obedience.

ix) Values

Is abstract idea of what is described correct and good that most member of a society share. They are conceptions or standards by which members of a society evaluate people, objects and events as to the relative worth, merit, beauty or morality. Value is used by the member of society to distinguish the desirable from the undesirable, what is good and bad the beautiful from the ugly.

x) Fashion

Are highly passing pattern of behavior fashion allows many change in norms Example Arts dressing etc.


THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

1) Language

Is an important in element of culture because it is used as a medium of communication in the society. It can also serve as an identify of a given society in particular or nation in general. For example Kiswahili language in Tanzania.

2) Traditions

Some tradition such as marriages and burial ceremonies play a key role of uniting people together when the meet to conduct or cerebrating the event.

3) Norms

Are social rule that guide behavior they specify the behavior that is appropriate or not in a given situation, norms a given as guideline on how we should act or not act not act on our daily activities.

4) Value

Help society to adopt acceptable behavior shape and individual personalities. A decent dressing for instance, can mark some one look smart and presentable in a certain occasion like wedding ceremony.

5) Ideology

Is important because it enables that society to explain, justify and order several existential condition which would otherwise prove impossible to explain .It also serves as mean for self identification for individual and group that adhere to it.

6) Art and creative

Are used by the people to express their feeling or attitude toward a certain events. The feeling can be expressed through such things like song, drama, picture e.t.c,. Other forms of arts such as painting and drawing are used for decorations.

7) Custom

Used by different societies are very important to the members of that particular society. Among other things are used to represent various object and events to the people.

8) Recreation

Provide household with necessary material such as furniture, pots, which are daily, also some of them can be sold to earn people income.

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Ways in which the Zanzibar Revolution brought about positive changes in the living conditions of the people of Isles.

Ways in which the Zanzibar Revolution brought about positive changes in the living conditions of the people of Isles.

1. Increased access to education. The revolutionary government built schools and colleges for the people of Zanzibar and provided free education to college level.

2. Restoration of land to the services of Africans. The government nationalized most plantations that were owned by Arabs and restored to indigenous people.

3. Promotion of Africans participation in politics and governance. The revolutionary government ensured peoples participation in political and governance responsibilities.

4. Improved housing. The revolutionary government took the drastic measures to improve the living conditions of the people of Zanzibar by building good houses for workers and other people, i.e houses built in Michenzani, Kilimani, Kikwajuni etc.

5. Improvement of means of infrastructure. The revolution government constructed roads and bought ships to facilitate marine transport from Zanzibar to Tanganyika and other destination.

6. Improved health services. Hospital and dispensaries were built across Zanzibar and to this date the campaign for improving the health standards of the people of Zanzibar is ongoing.

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Reasons why Zanzibar attained her indepence through Revolution

DECOLONIZATION THROUGH REVOLUTION IN ZANZIBAR.


Revolution is the discontent reaction through violence exercised by the majority of the country population in order to gain recognition or reform when legal and moderate means of political or social changes fails. OR


Is complete overthrow of an existing government or a way of life in an country or state by those who were previously subjected to it. Zanzibar revolution occurred in 1964 and led by John Okello.


British granted independence to Zanzibar in December 1963 under the constitution which left Arabs Sultan as the head of the state. The government of independent Zanzibar was formed by the coalition of the political parties led by the Arabs ruling minority and other two smaller parties representing the African majority population which was Afro Shiraz Part (ASP) and Zanzibar and Pemba Peoples Party (ZPPP), which later the majority African political parties resorted the employment of violent means as the diplomatic process could not alter the old regime because the Arabs dominant rule repressed all the opposition by the force of arms.


Reasons of Zanzibar Revolution

1. Historical differences, popular grievances and dissatisfaction between the Arabs and the Africans in Zanzibar. Ever since 1841 when Seyyid Said established Arabs administration and clove plantation in Zanzibar the rapport between Africans and the Arabs never became amicable. This inharmonious system instigated the Africans to struggle to achieve some meaningful status through revolution.

2. Monopoly of the trade. The trade life in Zanzibar has been monopolized by Asians as they directed commerce, finance and the intermediary states of civil services affairs. Hence Arabs became the leader of economy while Africans remains as watch dog.

3. Role played by John Okello. He was from Northern Uganda, a Lango by tribe. He was an official of ASP on Pemba Island. He developed a belief as early as 1961 of involving himself in a revolutionary army and from January 11-12, 1964 attained his aim.

4. Overexploitation of African resources. These were ongoing bitter mass exploitation. This group developed greater grievances against the Arabs as the matter they joined with thealready disgruntled peasants to start a revolution.

5. Growing different political parties and their antagonistic ideologies. By 1957, two parties were dominating the politics of Zanzibar that were ZNP and ASP of Karume. In 1959 new political party was formed that were ZPPP which encouraged membership of all races. From 1957-1963 four elections were convened on non-discriminatory voting. Through these elections, the Africans learnt a lesson that independence would not be achieved by constitutional means, hence they resorted to employ violence method.

6. Effects of British colonial legacy. Due to Arabs friendly coordination with the British and through indirect rule policy they divided societies into two classes i.e disadvantageous (Africans) and favored (Arabs). This created Arabs to dominate the government at the time of Independence, culminating in the Revolution of 1964.

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Countries which attained independence through combination Method : Decolonization through combination method

DECOLONIZATION THROUGH THE COMBINATION OF METHODS ZIMBABWE.


Zimbabwe nationalism took different forms. The well-known form was war of resistance, protest movements, Mass nationalism and armed struggle.


The Early Resistance


The early resistance was wagged by Mashona and Ndebele following the arrival of the white settlers in Zimbabwe in 1890. The strong resistance took place in 1896/97 which was known as Chimulenga war. The Chimulenga uprising was caused by forced labor, taxation, land alienation, confiscation of cattle by the white settlers etc.


The Protest/Political Movement


The political activities in Zimbabwe started to develop in 1920-1940's following the establishment of various associations and trade unions which protested European oppression and exploitation. Because of poor education system for Africans in Zimbabwe political leadership often came from immigrants especially from South Africa and Malawi. Among the protest movements were;

a) Rhodesian Bantu Liters Association (RBVA) formed in 1923 by Abraham Twala a South African.

b) Industrial Commercial Workers Union (ICW) formed in 1920 by Robert Sambo, a Malawian.

c) Southern Rhodesian African Congress (SRANC) formed in 1934 under the leadership of Aaron Jacha, South African.


The Rise of Mass Nationalism


Mass Nationalism in Zimbabwe began around 1950’s; it started as an opposition of Africans against the formation of Central African Federation, an association formed by British in 1953 so as to federate all central African countries dominated by white settlers. At this stage African decided to establish political parties which could demand political Independence through constitution means.


Political Parties in Zimbabwe.


Many political parties were formed during the struggle for Independence most of them based on tribal groups thus Africans in Zimbabwe were divided in different political parties such as;

a) ANC -African National Congress, formed in 1957 by Joshua Inkomo in 1959 the movement was burned by settler government.

b) NDP- National Democratic Party. It was formed in 1960 by Joshua Inkomo also it was burned by the settler government in 1961.

c) ZAPU - Zimbabwe African Party Union, It was formed in 1961 by Joshua Inkomo, in its activities ZAPU organized different activities such as strikes and demonstrations, for this reason it was burned in 1962.

d) ZANU- Zimbabwe African National Union, It was formed in 1963 under the leadership of Rev. Ndabaningi Sithole and Robert Mugabe. This political party wanted to use armed struggle in the whole country.


With all these struggles on November 11th 1965 the white minority in Zimbabwe under Iron Smith decreed illegally the Rhodesian Independence under the so-called Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) without consulting the British who made the state over the colony. The independence was declared illegally by settlers so as to be free from any British control. The Independence was of one side and it was called Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), which was to collapse fifteen years later. UDI had an effect to Africans which forced ZAPU and ZANU to launch armed because;

· It increased white supremacy over African

· It intensified exploitations

· It burned all political parties

· It imprisoned the nationalistic leaders

Armed Struggle


Actual armed struggle in Zimbabwe began in 1960 and it was facilitated by the military living of ZAPU and ZANU which were known as ZIPRA and ZANLA respectively. The movement of these military livings took the form of Guerilla warfare by using neighboring land such as Zambia, Mozambique and Angola. The struggle was intensified from 1976 following the alliance between ZAPU and ZANU which formed the Patriotic Front (P.F).


Reasons for armed struggle in Zimbabwe

1. Zimbabwe had a lot of settlers who occupied large areas of fertile land. These settlers were not ready to leave the land and grant independence. This situation led the black people to engage in armed struggle in order to gain their national independence.

2. The peaceful means or constitutional methods failed to work in Zimbabwe, hence it was necessary to use armed struggle in order to regain true political independence.

3. Economically, Zimbabwe was a rich colony; hence the colonizers didn’t easily surrender.

4. Ian Smith, UDI (Unilateral Declaration of Independence) government created in 1965 made the situation more difficult for African majority to gain their independence.

5. The “State of Emergency” in Zimbabwe banned all African political movement like ZANU, ZAPU, ANC and NDP.

6. African nationalist leaders like Joshua Inkomo and others were imprisoned or detained. They were banned to operate political movements peacefully.

7. There was disunity among the African leaders e.g. Bitter tribalistic differences which existed among Bishop Abel Muzolewa, Rev. Ndabaningi, Sithole, Joshua Inkomo and Robert Mugabe.

Factors which contributed to the attainment of Zimbabwe independence.

1. The bodied leadership of Robert Mugabe and Ndabaningi Sithiole. These leaders used effective methods such as negotiation and warfare which led Zimbabwe to attain her independence.

2. Contribution of Mass media such as magazine and newspapers which were used to expose the evils of the colonialists. These Mass Media also educated Africans on the need of majority rule.

3. The contribution made by ZIPRA and ZANLA. These freedom fighters directed their assault on the government. This really shocked the settler and their government as a result they arose peaceful negotiation with African.

4. The release of Joshua Nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole from the prison. They invigorated the people with new morale to fight for their independence.

5. The role played by organization of African Union (OAU). OAU members fought in supporting Zimbabwe nationalists, e.g. Kenya, Zambia and Tanzania were used as the home of liberation movements of Zimbabwean.

6. The independence of Angola and Mozambique in 1975 rejuvenated the morale of the freedom fighter of Zimbabwe. Angola and Mozambique were used as the base for organizing the attacks.

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Reasoms why most of African Countries attained their independence through Armed struggle

DECOLONIZATION THROUGH ARMED STRUGGLE


Armed struggle is the struggle for freedom through the use of arms and is based on the struggle for political independence in Africa countries. In Africa armed struggle was employed by many of the settler and the former Portuguese colonies.


Why Portuguese colonies achieved Independence through armed struggle?


Portugal had three colonies in Africa namely, Mozambique, Guinea Bissau and Angola and these entire colonies attained independence through armed struggle due to the following reasons;

1. Denial of the basic social services such as health and education to Africans. Many people in Portuguese colonies had no education and access to other social services. Example Out of 7827 school learners only 636 was Africans. Also out of 321 students in Universities only 4 were Africans. Therefore it was estimated that more than 85% of Africans were illiterate. This also made Africans to resort to the use of armed struggle in order to remove the exploiter in their land.

2. Disunity among the Africans in the sense that nationalistic leaders as in case of Angola where MPLA led by Augustino Netto, UNITA by Jonas Savimbi and FNLA of Holden Roberto were all fighting for nationalism.

3. Portuguese was a semi- colony of British. The Portuguese being poor were under the control of British who had asked on exploiting of agricultural and minerals raw materials. The imperialist’s manpower supported the Portuguese to strengthen their root in the colonies hence to uproot them was only through armed struggle.

4. The colonial economic grievances. African was against land alienation, forced labour, racial discrimination etc. so they wanted to send back Portuguese to their home.

5. Assassination of the nationalistic leaders such as Eduardo Mondlane in Mozambique. This also catalyzed the fighting against the Portuguese.

6. Presence of many settlers, Portuguese colonies had so many settlers who controlled the sphere of life of Africans. This created difficult condition for peaceful means to take place.

Decolonization through Armed struggle in Mozambique


Mozambique like any other African countries began the struggle for justice in 1920's and they started with Elite Associations. In 1920's the Gremio Africanas Association for Secondary School Students and African Association were founded which faced strong resistance from the Portuguese power. It was not until 1960's that the Africans in Mozambique under Portuguese rule managed to form nationalistic political organization including;

· National Democratic Union of Mozambique (UDENAMO) formed in 1960 in Southern Rhodesia.

· The Mozambique African National Union (MANU) formed in Kenya in 1961, and

· African Union of Independent Mozambique (UNAMI) formed in 1961 in Nyasaland (Malawi)

These all parties operated outside Mozambique because it was been banned and there was no way out and in 1961 they shifted their headquarter to Dar es Salaam. In 1962, a group of exile Mozambicans met in Dar es Salaam and merged their parties to form one party called Front for Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) under Eduardo Mondlane who was assassinated in 1969 with a Parcel bombs while in Da es Salaam.


Strategies used by Portuguese colonial state to weaken the FRELIMO struggle.

a) They terrorized villages hoping that they would stop supporting guerrilla fighters, Villagers were evicted from villages and concentrated into camps.

b) Destruction of farms and crops.

c) Burning of houses in villages

d) Massacre of people.

e) Assassination of key leaders of the struggle for independence i.e Eduardo Mondlane


Even though the Portuguese weakened FRELIMO but the party concentrated its attacks in strategic areas like in settler farms, railways lines, power installations and Portuguese military posts. By 1974 FRELIMO already had one-third control of Mozambique; this declined Portuguese morale to fight as FRELIMO proved its strength toward them.


Challenges that faced FRELIMO during the independence struggle.

1. Internal division within the movement. Some members at a certain point thought that it was better to compromise with the Portuguese i.e. Vice president of FRELIMO, Urina Simango and Lazaro Korindame who joined the Portuguese government.

2. The biggest church in Mozambique, the Catholic church supported the Portuguese and condemned FRELIMO

3. Opposition from the Revolutionary Committee of Mozambique (COREMO). This part broke away from FRELIMO because FRELIMO growing socialist learning.

4. Assassination of Eduardo Mondlane weakened the FRELIMO.

In 15th June 1975 Mozambique became independent under President SamoraMachel due to peace talk held in Lusaka Zambia in 1974.

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Factors which made Ghana to get her indepence earlier than Other Countries in Africa.

Decolonization through Constitutional Means in Ghana


Ghana mass nationalism began in 1940’s with the formation of political parties which demanded political independence through peacefully means, the political parties which were formed include;

· The United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC)

This was formed by J.B Ndaguah in 1947 and Dr. Kwame Nkrumah becomes the general secretary. The party was formed as the result of “Burns Constitution” which was introduced by Sir Allan Burns who was a governor by the time. In this constitution, it provided that the majority of members in the Legislative would be the Africans but the result was vice versa. This is because the Africans were not given the chances to make law and decisions matter in the Legislative council. For example, out of 18 seats were chiefs elected by their fellow chiefs (the support of British). Therefore the formation of UGCC was to oppose it and demand for independence.

· Convection People’s Party (CPP)

This was formed by radical group which broke away from UGCC under the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah in 1948. CPP become a popular party which was supported by people found in rural areas and town dwellers. Its struggle for independence was done through the following methods;

a. The use of youth as its political base to conduct a national wide strike against the constitution and the government.

b. The party had a newspaper called “The Accra Evening News” which spread the message that demanded independence of Ghana immediately.

c. It conducted mass rallies were by CPP use two powerful slogans such as “Seek first the political kingdom and all things shall be ended into it” and “Self-government Now”. However the Britain were threatened by the party hence they later imprison many of its leaders and burned its activities including the party news (Accra Evening News).

· The Northern People’s Party (NPP)

This was formed in 1954 but it was a work party among all the parties which were formed.


Generally, the struggle between these political parties led to holding elections for independence, e.g. the Election took place in 1951 and CPP won 33 seats against 3 seats of UGCC. At this period Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was released from the jail to form a government in 1952, in the Gold Coast, in 1956 there were more election where CPP won 71 seats and 33 seats were won by the opposition. On 6th march 1957, Gold Coast became independent taking the name of the ancient Ghana Empire in 1960 Ghana became republic with Kwame Nkrumah being the president.


Reasons for the success of CPP

1. Good leadership of Kwame Nkrumah as he managed to unite all people to struggle for independence.

2. The party received much support from the peasants who comprised the big number of the population (The oppressed or exploited group)

3. The use of slogan like “Self Government Now”. This was understood for all people as they knew that CPP was struggling for African government.

Why Ghana achieved independence earlier.

1. Good leadership. It had strong leadership such as CPP under Kwame Nkrumah.

2. There was no tribalism from the CPP united all people in their struggle for independence.

3. There were no settler in Ghana; therefore Ghana had no strong opposition from the white population hence it successfully gained her full independence in earlier 1957, thus being the first country in African to attain independence.

4. The use of youth in nationalistic struggles of CPP, the youth were employed because had ability to walk for long time and distances in the process of spreading nationalistic ideas.

5. The use of good slogan example “Self Government Now” and “Seek first the political kingdom and all things shall be ended into it”

6. The CPP had clear policies and elaborative programs that promised to serve the people from the bitter price of cocoa, higher payment to workers and getting rid of colonialism.

Contribution of Ghana in Nationalistic Struggle in other African countries.

1. The independence of Ghana was an inspiration to other African countries, example. Other African countries like Tanganyika and others nationalist used Kwame Nkrumah as their model to fight for independence.

2. Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah strengthened Pan-Africanism movement which opposed colonialism. Example. In April 1958 all independent states like Libya, Ethiopia, Morocco, Egypt, Tunisia etc. were invited to meet Accra to pay down plans which could be used to help other countries get their independence.

3. Kwame Nkrumah was a person who advocated for the united states of Africa and African unity. These ideas led to the formation of OAU which later became an organization which opposed colonialism in many countries.

4. Sometimes Ghana gave moral and material support to other non-independent states Ghana gave money to Malawi (Nyasaland) and Belgium Congo to fight for independence.

Decolonization through Constitutional Means in Nigeria


Decolonization process in Nigeria went together with the formation of political parties by Africans after the WWII. These political parties replaced the social and welfare Associations such the peoples union of 1908 which had protested against the water rate in Lagos and the Nigerian used movement which had earlier campaigned for bitter representation on the LEGCO, improved Africans living conditions and higher salaries for workers in 1934.


Mass Nationalism after WWII in Nigeria aimed at political independence through the use of peaceful method in which political parties held decisions with the colonialist and pressed the British government to provide independence to the Nigerians. There were a number of political parties that were formed almost after the WWII this included the following;


i. The National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC)


This was formed in 1944 by Dr Nandi Azikiwe and Herbert Maculay. It was supported by the workers mainly from the Igbo in Eastern Nigeria since 1951 when the leaders of Igbo had quarrels with the Yoruba.


ii. The Northern People’s Party (NPP)


This was formed in 1951 by the Hausa-Fulani living on the north; many of its supporters were the Muslims who struggled for the domination of the well-developed Christians in the south. Its leader was Al-haji Sir Abubakar Tajawa Balewa.


iii. The Action Group (AG)


This was mainly supported by the Yoruba and represented the interests of the western Nigeria. The political party struggled for independence in order to liberate the westerners from colonial exploitation. The movement of all these political parties against the British led to the making of constructions which prepared Nigeria for independence.


The constitutions that led to independence of Nigeria.


Generally, when Nigeria showed that it was struggling for independence on the basis of tribal misunderstanding, to bring unity between political parties there were the constitutional which were made;


a. THE RICHARD’S CONSTITUTION


It was made in 1946 by the British government after NCNC organized a strike against social hardship after the WWII. The constitution provided the following;

· Election of central legislative for the North and South which were ruled separately before 1946.

· Bringing changes to the majority of the members who were not in the government to be in the legislative council.

· The legislative council to be able to make a law for the whole country which was divided in four regions, such as the North, South, West and East.

· The executive council in the constitution which had effort to strive for total independence.

b. MACPHERSON’S CONSTITUTION

It was made by the new governor in 1951. This constitution brought about some changes on the former constitution.

c. LYTTELTON CONSTITUTION

It was made in 1954 following the conference held in London where the conference created a federal constitution which gave more powers to regional governments and their legislature.


Elections which led to the independence in Nigeria.


1. The first Federal Election on 1954


In this election NCNC made a coalition government where by Al-haji Sir Abubakar Tajawa Balewa, a leader of NPP became the prime minister of Federal Government of Nigeria. In 1957 he provided a chance to the Action Group (AG) in order to get the government of national unity.


2. The second Election of 1959


In this election ethnic division were much higher. NPP won in the North, Action Group (AG) in the west and NCNC in the east. This trend made Nigeria achieve her independence under ethnic division which led to violence and civil wars in the first ten years after independence. On 1st October 1960 Nigeria got full independence from British where by Dr. Nandi Azikiwe of NCNC became the first president while Tajawa Balewa of NPP was the first Prime minister.


Problems that faced Nigerian’s nationalist struggle.

1. Tribalism. The political parties which were formed, struggled for independence along the tribal lines, Example. NPP struggled for the Northerners while AG struggled for the westerners on the Yoruba.

2. Vastness of the country. Nigeria was big in size and had diverse settlements of its people. It was not easy for the nationalist to move around the country.

3. Religious conflicts. The people of the north were mainly Muslims who did not like to join with the south Christians who developed more than Muslims.

4. Opposition from the colonial government. Since the British wanted to exploit raw materials, markets, cheap labour etc. they obviously put obstacles which would provide long time for Nigerians to achieve independence.

5. Shortage of money, the nationalists had no enough money because they came from a poor class of people e.g. They could not be able to afford payments for the transport to the rallies against colonial government.

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What are the factors which made Tanganyika to get her Independence earlier?

Factors that led Tanganyika to get her independence earlier.

1. Good leadership of the party under the late J.K Nyerere. He united all people under the single political party to fight for independence. He discouraged and opposed racialist policies which could divide the people in the process of fighting for independence.

2. The use of Swahili language with common word like “Uhuru”. This made the people to understand the mission/aims of the party hence many people ranging from the workers in towns to the peasant and the rural areas joined and supported the party.

3. The role of the party links with international organization such as UNO. TANU leader J.K Nyerere sought support for his party by visiting the United Nation headquarters in New York. He presented the grievances which were accepted by the UNO. This made UNO to put more pressure to the British government to grant independence to the people.

4. Effective means of communication, the Swahili language which was spoken by majority member of the people of Tanganyika helped to unite all the people in the country to fight for their independence. Example, Politicians could communicate with the colonial subjects directly.

5. The nature of economic structure. Tanganyika unlike Zanzibar and Kenya lagged behind in terms of economy thus there was no strengthened settler economy and also strong resistance from the whites.

6. TANU was mass political party hence many people regarding their ethnic groups joined and supported the party. This was centrally to the political parties of Kenya and Uganda which based on tribalism of region.

7. The role of Richard Turnbull since his appointment as the British governor in 1958 helped Tanganyika to get independence earlier. Turnbull soon won confidence of Africans people and Nyerere became his friend with whom he discussed on the future government eg. When the Nationalists leaders presented their demand to the government they were more considered than in kenya and Uganda.

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The meaning, Objective and problems faced TANU in Tanganyika

The struggle for independence in Tanganyika took a peaceful means (Constitution means) the struggle was led by Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) as a mass political party after changing its name from Tanganyika African Association (TAA) and adopting new objective in 1954.


Objective of TANU

1. To prepare the people of Tanganyika for self-independent government

2. To destroy tribalism and develop national unity for the whole people of Tanganyika

3. To struggle for democratic government and to have representative in local districts and central government.

4. To break up racialism and discrimination among the people

5. To cooperate with other African nationalistic parties from other African colonies against colonialism.

6. To oppose the colonial government with its policies of land alienation policies and the entry of more settlers in Tanganyika.

7. To encourage the people to join trade unions and cooperative union to struggle for their rights.

8. To help the peasants press to colonial government in getting better to their products.

Problems that faced TANU


TANU faced many problems during the struggle for independence, such problems included,

i. The vastness of the country and lack of adequate transport and communication network. This hindered easy movement of the leaders to convince the people, it was difficult to go around the country to establish branches and coordinate the members to support the movement.

ii. Opposition from the colonial government. The colonial government prevented the civil servants from joining the party and thus diminishing the number of members, also burned the political party in Morogoro district, Kondoa and Iringa in 1956, Usambara in 1957. In same year the burning had been extended to eleven districts which had members who protested against oppressive government policies.

iii. Misunderstanding between the party members which erupted in 1958where by a group of members in the meeting held in Tabora did not agree with a moderate policies of the party, they were after a mole militant Africanist stand and eventually they broke away and formed African National Congress (ANC) under ZuberiMtemvu.

iv. Opposition from United Tanganyika Party (UTP) which formed in 1958 under Martin Kayamba. The party was sponsored by British government and had great supports from chiefs, white men that Tanganyika will proceed to be affiliated to colonialists. It made a lot of effort to transfer power to TANU.

v. Shortage of money. The party was made by members who had low income. Therefore it was not easy for them to finance party activities during the struggle for independence.

vi. The rise of all Muslim National Union of Tanganyika (AMNUT) as a opposition party. This was another party created by demanding that “Tanganyika will not be independent until the Muslims have equal education level with the non-Muslims population”. However under TANU, Tanganyika was able to attain her independence at an earliest stage as compared with the rest of African countries in the south of Sahara.

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What are the types of Decolonization and its forms ?

DECOLONIZATION


Decolonization is the process of Africans struggles to uproot colonialist and foreign rule. This process started immediately after the imposition of colonial rule. Decolonization also denotes the different form of acquiring independence determined by the nature of colonization in the colony.


Forms of decolonization


In Africa there were various forms which employed in decolonization process. These forms were constitutional (peaceful means), armed struggle, combination of peaceful means and armed struggle and Revolutionary means.

A. Constitutional method/peaceful means

This method entails the colonial government in collaboration with the Nationalist Leader preparing programme towards political independence. The method did not involve bloodshed it was employed in many African countries such as;

· Tanganyika

· Ghana

· Nigeria

· Zambia

· Zaire etc.

B. Armed Struggle


This method involved bloodshed and it was mostly adopted when peacefully means show sign of failure. This includes countries whose political parties could not successfully struggle for attainment of independence. Therefore the use of force of arms became necessary. It includes colonies like Mozambique, Angola, Algeria etc.


C. The combination of Peaceful means and Armed struggle


The colonies which adopted this method started with constitutional methods but when the method found to fail they come with armed struggle (took up arms) to force the colonialists surrender their power. Some colonies started with armed struggle but ended with constitutional method. The method was applied/employed in South Rhodesia, Namibia, South Africa and Kenya.

D. Revolution

Revolution refers to the complete overthrown of the existing government or system in a country or state by those who were previous subjected to it. It was a last resort or as means of getting disagreement over fundamental questions. This method was commonly employed in monarchy system rule of countries like Zanzibar, Burundi, Egypt, Libya etc.


The factors which determined the form or methods of decolonization


1. The nature of colonial economic structure

The type of colonial system established in the colony was the major reasons for difference in the struggle for independence e.g. peasant colonies like Ghana, Tanganyika and Nigeria, independence came through constitutional means. This is partly because the colonialist received little to exploit in these colonies.


In settler colonies such as Algeria, Zimbabwe, Namibia and Kenya, independence was achieved through armed struggle. These are because the settlers were not ready to leave the land or colony and grant independence.

2. Economic and political position of the colonizing power


Some of the colonial powers like the Portuguese were poor and their colonies were remedy for their poverty. Therefore granting independence to such colonies meant committing economic suicide. Therefore independence in the Portuguese colonies was to be achieved through the barrel of gun/armed struggle

3. Attitude of the colonial masters.

Example, Kenya was regarded as a crown colony or crown land (land of the Queen of England) hence not easy for the colonial powers to grant independence. This necessitated armed struggle.


Angola and Mozambique were regarded as extension of Portuguese abroad (Portuguese provinces abroad). Therefore the long drawn on guerilla war in these colonies were invisible.


4. The nature or structure of the African societies.


This depended on the level of development reached by societies like whether they were collaborative, weak, strong etc. therefore the only solution was to attain independence through armed struggle.


5. Relationship between different ethnic groups and racial community within the colony.


The form of struggle was also influenced by the relation between ethnic group or racial segregation. Discrimination revealed bitterness and hatred among the colonial subject this complicated the struggle for independence. Example. Members of different ethnic groups failed to unite and form mass political parties.


In some cases the colonialists tended to favour minority against the majority to form the government of independent African states. This led to the revolution for the majority felt that they are not independent/free example in Zanzibar.

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Internal factors and external factors for the rise of African mass Nationalism

Is the Mass feelings and attitude of demanding independence by using a nationalist struggle in form of unified parties beyond the class, tribe or ethnic background.

It denotes the period in which many Africans formed many political parties for struggle for Africans independence rather than the changes in colonial system. Generally, when speaking of development of mass nationalism in Africa started soon after the end of WWII (1945).

Internal Reasons for the Rise of Mass African Nationalism.

1) Colonial exploitation: These include intensive economic exploitation exercised in the colonies by the colonialist this ranged from forced labour, taxation, land alienation, bad working condition, low wages, low prices of cash crops, thus Africans had to fight for independence and remove all of these colonial injustices.

2) Colonial political, social and cultural oppression. Colonialism oppressed Africans in all sphere of life.

Ø Politically; people had no democracy since colonial government gave no room for colonial subjects to elect their own leader. Example, the Legistrative council had dominated by colonial masters hence discontent among the Africans.

Ø Socially, the major social discontent were discrimination, where Africans masses were racially discriminated in all forms of life, in urban areas there were discrimination in education, health, sports and in many other field.

Ø Culturally, Christianity and western education were used to impart western culture to Africa, example; Christianity came into conflicts with traditional beliefs, polygamy which were strongly opposed by whites Christianity missionaries.

3) The presence of independent existing countries in Africa such as Liberia and Ethiopia. They thus became source of inspiration to the emerging nationalists.

4) Emergence of many young elites with radical nationalistic movement such as Sam Nujoma (Namibia), Augustino Netto (Angola), Keneth Kaunda (Zambia), J.K Nyerere (Tanganyika), and Kwame Nkurumah (Ghana) e.t.c. These Africans who were educated from colonial school and Missionaries schools contributed to the rise of Nationalism.

5) Emergence of Bourgeois group: This was the group created by the colonial system. It include the civil servant i.e. teachers, wealth people, traders, businessmen and commercial farmers. This group aimed at taking over the colonial state in their own ambition and descent wealth from foreigners to indigenous hand. Generally, the group was reformist rather than revolutionist as they adopted for superficial changes and not a complete and fundamental changes.

6) The role of Independent African Church movement. These were the churches formed by Africans to challenge European church leaders. The movement was not merely, but also addresses economic, social and political discontent such as land alienation, forced labour, taxation, involvement of Africans in European wars and colonial discriminatory policies. The movement laid the foundation

7) Development of communication system by 1945. During this period there was a little development of communication system such as Roads, Railways, Newspaper, radios etc. These in turn were used by Africans leaders to awaken nationalism to the masses. Also they facilitated the nationalists to travel from one side/point of a country to another in order to arise political consciousness to the people.

External Reasons for the Rise of Mass African Nationalism.

1) The role of the Second World War (WWII): The war led to the intensification of exploitation due to the colonial economic policies introduced in the colonies. This was mainly in agriculture and mining sectors faced harsh treatment such as forced labour and land alienation which led to the wide spread discontent from the Africa.

Also during the WWII Africans from different areas were recruited to fight against the German and the colonialist. They were told that they are fighting for human dignity, justice, equality and right for all people to self-determination. They were also promised that at the end of the war the colonialist will improve the colonial social services and they will be employed and given good salaries. However these promises were not fulfilled hence it in increased frustrations among the Africans where by the some of them took up arms to fight against the whites.

2) The rise of USA as the world superpower, this was due to the following;

The wars (WWI and WWII) were not fought in the USA ground and didn’t experience disasters, destruction of her colonial infrastructures, eg. Transport and industrial sectors. During the war she rose to the status of supplying military weapons to the Europeans powers. At the end of the war she came out with the policy of “the open door policy” so as to get the areas of investment and market for her manufactured goods. She supported decolonization in Africa so that at the end she could spread capitalism ideology so as to reduce the spread of socialist ideology by USSR.

3) The role played by UNO. UNO was formed after the WWII (1945), and one of the characters of UNO was the “Colonization violated human rights”. Therefore its role was to support decolonization. Its purpose was to maintain international security and peace to different nations. Due to all these objective UNO was against all forms of oppression and exploitation exercised by the colonialists in Africa.

4) The emergence of USSR as a socialist world force, Russia supported decolonization process in Africa so that she would spread her ideology (socialism) and get areas from the economic motives/interests.

5) The role of Pan Africanism movements. PAN-Africanism was the movement which opposed the oppression over all the black people in the world. The movement founded in America by the people of Africa by origin and it held in Manchester in 1945.

The conference was mostly gathered by representative of Africa national and labour organization among of them were Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Kamuzu Banda (Malawi), Nandi Azikiwe (Nigeria), Peter Abraham of South Africa e.t.c

Also Pan-Africanism provided morally and materially support to the nationalists, moral support entailed the giving of ideas and advices on the strategies which had to be used by the Africans to eradicate colonialism. Materially Pan-Africanism gave funds to assist the leaders during the struggle for independence.

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The meaning and factors for the rise of Nationalism in Africa

Introduction

Nationalism is the political will of African people to unite together as a nation and fight against the foreign rule, with the intention of ruling themselves Or Is an express of political unity with an aim of regaining independence. Or Are patriotic feelings or consciousness of people who regard themselves as one.

In African context Nationalism is a desire of African people to terminate all form of foreign rule. Nationalism in Africa gained its momentum immediately after the Second World War in 1945. It is the Second World War that influenced the African Nationalism.

The Origin of African Nationalism

The development of African nationalism can be expressed into three main phases, namely;

· 1st PHASE (1880’s to 1900’s)

This phase was characterized by wars of resistance which intended to prevent the colonial invasion or an effort to regain their lost independence. Example, Hehe resistance under Mkwawa against German, Nama and Herero in Namibia against German and Nandi resistance in Kenya against British.

· 2nd PHASE (1900’s to 1945)

This sometimes known as Pre-Nationalism interwar period, the struggle of this phase was wagged through various protest movement such as;

a. Social and welfare

b. Independent church movement

c. Trade and cooperatives union

The aim of this struggle was mainly to make reforms in the colonial government instead of overthrowing it.

· 3rd PHASE (after the second world war in 1945)

This was the period when the whole nation was mobilized to fight against colonialism. It was the period of Mass nationalism (Modern Nationalism) which finally led to independence in most states in Africa in the late 1960’s. This period was characterized by the rise of Nationalistic movement and political parties.

The Importance of African Nationalism

African nationalism had the following importance to the continent;

1. African nationalism opposed imperial occupation and therefore enabled the Africans to achieve political independence (African self-rule in 20th century)

2. It was a means by which Africans showed political awareness against the economic exploitation by the white men in Africa during the 19th century and the 20th centuries. African strongly opposed land alienation, forced labour and taxation imposed by the white men.

3. African nationalism united African ethnic groups through the formation of political movements to press for the formation of Modern African Nations under a single government.

4. It dismantled the evils of European capitalism on Africa soil during the early years of national independence.

5. It was pro-African culture. All political movements which began sought Africans to be able to govern themselves and carry out their daily activities according to their needs under African leadership.

6. It taught the Africans that the efforts to liberate themselves lay within their hands and that Europeans only valued their own interests.

The Rise of Social and Welfare Associations

Social and welfare associations are prominent community or social groups associations formed by Africans to protest colonial exploitation, oppression and humiliation. However, many social and welfare association were forced in order to meet the immediate demand or need of members. These were group created by African who worked in different sectors of colonial system such as;

a. Skilled and unskilled workers

This was social gathering where the workers interacted and were the forums to express their grievances. This association comprised of elite who lived in poor areas and houses and have no good health and education services compared to Europeans.

b. African traders

These were petty traders in urban areas. They formed their associations to address their grievances. Africans traders were discriminated while Asians and Europeans traders were favored much by colonial government.

c. Peasants and cooperatives societies

These were mainly peasant’s cooperative unions. Example of such association was the Kilimanjaro Native Association of Tanganyika. Peasants in many parts of Africa during the colonial rule were forced to grow cash crops in their areas. Examples of Social and welfare Associations in Africa;

A. In East Africa

· Tanganyika Territory Civil Service Association (TTCSA) formed in 1922 by Martin Kayamba. In 1929 it was transformed to Tanganyika African Association based on Dar es Salaam.

· The Bataka Movement and Young Baganda Association formed in 1920 which aimed at opposing the Buganda agreement of 1900.

· The East African Association formed in 1930 in Kenya.

· The Young Kavirondo Tax Paying Association in Kenya formed by Henry Thuku in 1930, formed for opposing land alienation, forced labour, prohibition of Africa from growing cash crops.

B. In Central Africa

· The Momera Native Association in Nyasaland

· South Rhodesia Native Association in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)

· Industrial and Commercial Union in South Rhodesia

C. In West Africa

· The Arbergis Rights Protection Society (ARPS) formed in 1808 to oppose the British land Bill in Gold Coast (Ghana)

· The People Union formed in 1908 in Lagos (Nigeria) by Herbert Macaulay to protest against the heavy of water rate.

· Nigerian Youth Movement

· Ashanti Cocoa Federation

D. In South Africa

· South African Native Congress (SANC) formed in 1912 later in 1935 it was transformed into ANS.

Reasons for the rise Social and Welfare Association

1. Difficult living and working condition

2. Low wages

3. Forced labour and taxation

4. Land alienation

5. Racial and social segregation

6. Prohibition from growing cash crops

7. They demanded fair prices for what their members were producing.

8. Demand for the security of peasants land and better methods of growing commercial crops.

9. They looked for agricultural implements for the farmers.

Strength and the Contributions or Roles played by Social and Welfare Association to Modern Nationalism.

The following are the strength and contributions of Social and Welfare associations to modern African nationalism;

i. They promoted unity among the various groups and raised the demand which went beyond the ethnic interests.

ii. They contributed to the rise of awareness or consciousness among the colonizing people.

iii. It forms the associations that the later nationalist leader came from and who became real political leaders. Example Jommo Kenyatta was a member of Kikuyu Central Association.

iv. They facilitated communication among the people

v. They supported morality and materially in terms memberships of this later political parties.

vi. Many of them transformed into political parties which demanded independence. Example, SANN into ANC, TAA into TANU, ZAA into ASP e.tc.

vii. Their infrastructure such as offices came to be used by the Nationalistic leaders.

The Rise of Protest and Religious Movement

Protest is often a reaction against those who mistreat or humiliate others, indicating that their treatment cannot be taken anymore. It can be through active physical reaction such as fighting or striking, passive protest could be done through boycotts and other silent reactions.

Religious movement refers to the churches which were formed by Missionaries. At this period they emerged as an independent churches movement led by Africans. It prevailed in the early 20th century among the Africans communities. Took the form of either indigenous protest movement and includes the following;

a. The Native Baptist church Movement led by Africa in Nigeria.

b. Kimbanguism Church formed by Simon Kimbangu in 1920 (Congo)

c. Dini ya Msambwa in Kenya

d. The providence Industrial Mission formed in 1906 in Nyasaland by John Chilebwe

e. Abamalack Church Movement in Uganda

f. The Watch Tour (1906) in Malawi which later spread to another area i.e. Rhodesia and Belgium Congo.

g. The Kikuyu Independent Church formed in 1929 by Daud Maina

h. The African National Church

Reasons for the rise of Protest and Religious Movements

1. Dissatisfaction with Christians Missionaries acts of westernizing them, making them denounces their African values and culture. Example white Missionaries talked negatively about polygamy and female circumcision among Kikuyu society.

2. African disapproval to the Missionary education system. They considered it to be inadequate as it only taught Africans reading, writing and arithmetic (the 3Rs) which enabled Africans to occupy low position in administration structure.

3. Africans perceived Missionaries as colonial agents, as many of them acquired labour, farms and exploited them just like white settlers.

4. Involvement of Africans in European wars

Characteristics of independent Churches movement

Independent churches movements had the following common characteristics;

a) They worked hand with hand with the African political associations

b) They were against some aspects of the western culture

c) They were led by Africans.

Strengths and Contributions of protest and religious movement during the struggle for independence.

The following are some of the strengths and contributions of protests and religious movements during the struggle for independence.

i. They established their own school in which African children were taught their culture and the evils of colonialism. Later, those who received education in these schools became political activists.

ii. The independent churches taught reformism. They taught African that the missionaries were mere agents of colonialism and not full evangelical as they preached.

iii. The protest pressed the colonial governments through active demonstrations, boycotts and strikes. All these led to the increase of consciousness, particularly when the colonial government used force to put an end to protests.

iv. They instructed Africans not to pay tax and also not to be involved in the imperialist wars because Africans were not beneficiaries of these.

v. They were not merely religious but also they expressed economic, social and political discontent.

vi. They laid the foundation towards unity, that for the first time people from diverse social and cultural background come together.

vii. They were the first organized manifestation of the Africans determination to regain their independence.

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Colonialism and colonial administrative system in Africa

Colonial administrative systems were the ways of controlling and maintaining colonial power in colonies after the establishment of colonialism. In the early 20th century, the process of conquest and partition of Africa were almost completed by European powers, only Ethiopia and Liberia escaped from colonial control. Colonialists including Germany, French, British, Portugal, Belgium etc. after colonizing African countries they introduced different administrative systems in their colonies depended on the following:

The nature of the people in the colonies, such as being cooperative, military, strong, weak etc.
Challenges encountered during acquiring colonies i.e. by strong resistance, collaboration etc.
The character of colonial power, for example Germany preferred direct rule while British preferred indirect rule and French preferred assimilation policy.

Reasons as why colonialists introduced different administrative systems after the establishment colonial rule.


To change the form or tradition of the African system of administration.
To maintain or ensure effective occupation control of the colony socially, politically and economically.
Maximization of profit through colonial exploitation by setting up a system of administration which favored colonialists.
 To ensure peace and harmony in colonies after faced reactions resistances during the establishment of colonial rule.
To prepare the suitable and conducive environment for establishment of colonial economy.
To fulfill the agreement reached during the Berlin conference of 1884-1885 on effective occupation of colonies.
Therefore; the reasons behind the establishment of different colonial administrative system in Africa after colonialists managed to defeat Africans, was due to many resistances colonialists faced while they were trying to introduce colonial rule in Africa.

Types/Forms of Colonial Administrative Systems Adopted in Africa

Direct Rule
Indirect Rule
 Assimilation Policy
 Association Policy


A.   INDIRECT RULE SYSTEM

Indirect rule was an administrative system in which traditional rulers implemented the colonial policies for the aims of preserving of traditional political institutions and their adaptations under the direction of the British administration to the requirements of modern units of local government.
Indirect rule was common in British colonies and it was introduced by an eminent colonial governor by the name of Lord Lugard, who implemented when he was the Governor of Northern Nigeria from 1900-1906 and the whole Nigeria from 1912-1920, the approach was involving the identifying the local power structure (Kings, Chiefs or Headmen ).


Reasons for the application of Indirect rule system

i.                    Lack of manpower. The British always maintained that indirect rule system was designed to protect and preserve African political systems, but in the early British found that the area they seized were simply too large to be ruled directly without the assistance from the indigenous Africans.
ii.                  Communication problems, the use of African Kings or Chiefs was important because he understood his people’s language hence it will be easy to transmit orders and directives from European to Africans.
iii.                To avoid resistances. Indirect rule make Africans understand that their fellow Africans exploit them and not Europeans as it was mostly applied to the area where there were powerful local rulers.
iv.                The system was cheap economically and strategically. By recognized and offering to work with local rulers not only did the cost of running the colony be low, also they used local authority managed by Africans to boost their colonial interests.
v.                  Physical difficulties in the colonial Africa also forced British to use indirect rule. The thick forest, tropical diseases, wild animals, climatic condition, hostile tribes led British to adopt for indirect rule system.
vi.                British use indirect rule due to the fact that was suitable technique of governing illiterate masses of Africans.
vii.              The British were afraid of eliminating the local administrative set up. The use of traditional rulers could help them get puppets that would implement their policies.
viii.            Tropical diseases which killed many British personnels. e.g. Malaria

APPLICATION OF INDIRECT RULE IN NIGERIA BY LORD FREDRIC LUGARD

Indirect rule was first applied in Nigeria by the British governor known as Sir Fredrick Lugard in 1900-1906. Indirect rule in Nigeria was applied after British encountered (faced) a lot of challenges from big tribes which had strong traditional administrative systems like Fulani aristocracy who governed Sokoto caliphate by using Islamic laws in Northern Nigeria.

Therefore the British by using indirect rule which was required as a role model in the British colonial administration. Local native leaders in Nigeria continued to rule their traditional land, collect taxes and implement orders and duties as assigned by the British. So British succeeded to apply indirect rule in Northern Nigeria despite it was not successful much in Southern Nigeria in Yomba tribe.
Through indirect rule Lord Lugard was able to control Nigeria by using their local traditional ruling system and cooperative leaders who performed the following activities;
1.      To collect taxes.
2.      To implement British laws and policies.
3.      To reduce resistance from the people.
4.      To reduce the political, economic and military costs.
5.      To rule their land under the British control.

Despite the fact that Indirect rule succeeded to rule Nigeria especially Northern Nigeria, other areas In Nigeria like southern Nigeria was unsuccessful due to poor and less cooperation from YORUBA land chiefs or kings who did not organize and centralize Yoruba people since before.

Therefore the British found the following as the failure of indirect rule in Southern Nigeria;

1.      Chiefs /Local rulers of Southern Nigeria were not given respect by the Yoruba people.
2.      Local rulers were appointed to implement the British polices but they failed i.e. collection of taxes.
3.      Southern Nigerian societies had strong traditional administrative system such as the use of chiefs for example Lagos had no chiefdom system.
4.      Southern Nigeria was decentralized than Northern Nigeria which was more centralized.

Therefore indirect rule became very difficult to be applied in Southern Nigeria by Lord Lugard during his six years of administering Nigeria so as to transform it into commercial [economically] as well as politically and to establish British protectorate by using its local rulers.

Why Lord Fredrick Lugard applied/preferred application of Indirect Rule in the British colonies

1.     Some of the African societies were centralized hence no need of the new colonial administrative system. For example Sokoto caliphate, Bugando.
2.    Some of the African communities were not competent to control themselves with the British assistance hence used indirect rule.
3.      British wanted to spread their superiority complex over Africans.
4.      They used indirect rule to avoid administrative costs.
5.   British wanted to avoid communication barriers, for example language problems and poor infrastructures.
6.      British were few in number so indirect rule solved the problem of manpower.
7.      Lord Lugard preferred indirect rule because it avoided resistance and conflicts from local rulers and people.

STRUCTURE OF THE BRITISH INDIRECT RULE

Indirect rule administrative system which was applied by the British in her colonies was arranged in different structures to ensure effective colonial control over colony and good administrative machinery which will prepare conducive environment for establishment of colonial economy.

The structure of indirect rule was as follows;

Colonial secretary stayed in London [UK]
Governor appointed in UK and hired in colonies.
Provincial commissioner was a British lived in certain regions to represent the governor.
District commissioner was a British (white) lived in district level representing provision commissioner; he lived with people and gave them orders through local rulers.
Local chiefs were local rulers appointed by British who were given orders by colonial officers include provincial commissioners and district commissioners to supervise in the daily activities and local ordinances.
Headmen. These were Africans who received orders from local chiefs and implement them to the people (Africans) by using force once people resisted.

Problems/challenges British faced in implementing the use of indirect rule system in Nigeria.

Despite the British succeeded to rule Africans indirectly through their local rulers, they met a number of challenges, since British indirect rule introduced different policies and systems, in Africa which was new and not existed in Africa before such as; Payment of taxes, forced labour, land alienation, introduction of coercive apparatus such as police, army, court etc. The following were problems challenges /difficulties Britain faced during Implementing the use of indirect rule;

1.      Absence of centralized administration in North Eastern Nigerian societies, such as Igbo and Yoruba were not well centralized like the Sokoto caliphate or Buganda kingdom hence made the application of indirect rule to be very difficult due to lack of cooperation and local rulers’ support.
2.      Illiteracy of the masses. Some of the societies In Nigeria such as the Yoruba and the Abeokuta who became Independent in 1893, due to their illiterate they organized people to oppose indirect rule.
3.      Harsh British policies. Some of the indirect rule British policies such as forced labour and taxation which was introduced to the people were new and unpopular hence reacted by the people of Nigeria especially Igbo.
4.      Opposition I resistance from the local rulers. Some of the local rulers did not support British indirect rule for example rulers from Yomba and Abeokuta.
5.      Creation of British wants puppet chiefs. Indirect rule faced challenges in Nigeria because British decided to create their own chiefs who were rejected and unpopular hence people opposed against them.
6.      Poor infrastructures. Absence of good infrastructures such as roads, railways, and harbor phones made the failure to access information.

INDIRECT RULE SYSTEM IN TANGANYIKA

Tanganyika formerly was a German colony from 1886 after Berlin conference. After the end of the first world war of 1914-1918 Germany lost Tanganyika colony to British who took the victory of the war. During German rule in Tanganyika they used direct rule system thus faced a lot of resistances from Tanganyika societies such as Hehe resistance, Yao and Chagga resistance. Therefore after the British took control over the Tanganyika colony; they decided to change the former German direct rule which used Jumbes and Akidas and introduced indirect rule.

The first British governor in Tanganyika who was known as Sir Donald Cameroon initiated and introduced indirect rule in Tanganyika. Sir Donald Cameroon decided to introduce indirect rule in Tanganyika due to the influence and motivation from governor Lord Fredrick Lugard who succeeded to control Nigeria through indirect rule so sir Donald Cameroon wanted to copy that system of indirect rule and apply it in Tanganyika hence he met the following challenges.


The challenges/difficulties sir Donald Cameroon faced when he introduced Indirect Rule in Tanganyika

1.      Absence of traditional administrative system. Germany removed all local rulers’ administration during their rule in Tanganyika, so it was difficult for Sir Donald Cameroon to introduce them again.
2.      Illiteracy and ignorance of the masses over indirect rule. Tanganyika was controlled and ruled by the German power for a very long time directly so indirect rule was a new system which was not known.
3.      Poor organization of permanent chiefs. Few tribes in Tanganyika recognized their chiefs and they bad status and power, less executive, financially and judiciary for example the Chagga.
4.      Poor infrastructure. Indirect rule got a lot of challenges in Tanganyika since the country was big while there was poor network and communication links to reach and coordinate local chiefs.
5.      Absence of local authorities in Tanganyika societies such as; coastal tribes which had no traditional local authorities since Arabs’ domination which introduced Islamic law. Due to this Sir Donald Cameroon get no support of local rulers in his administration.

Despite the fact that Sir Donald Cameroon met a lot of challenges problems in the introduction of indirect rule in Tanganyika as we have seen above, he preferred and forced to introduce indirect rule through;

1.      The native authority ordinance of 1926 and the coast ordinance of 1919.

These two laws (ordinances aimed at creating a solid foundation for the indirect rule administration and local authorities. Through these two laws (ordinance) local chiefs were required and given the following tasks and duties;

 Tax collection such as hut tax and poll tax.
Chiefs were responsible for enforcing British laws and orders.
Chiefs were given judiciary power to enforce their decisions according to customary laws.
Chiefs were responsible to implement British policies, law, ordinances and orders to their people.

 How Indirect was indirect rule?

 Indirect rule was indirect because the British used local rulers to organize and supervise various colonial economic activities such as cash crop production, tax collection and building colonial infrastructure on behalf.
  British colonialist used Africans rulers in administering punishment to their fellow Africans on their behalf.
The British colonialist used Africans rulers to resolve disputes where the conflicting individuals were African natives on their behalf.
 British government issued orders to the Africans local rulers who then had to convey them to the ruled Africans ready for implementation.
 The system shifted the blame on African rulers making them be hated by their fellow Africans for their support of colonial rule evils such as exploitation and oppression from these fellow Africans.

Functions of African local chiefs during the Indirect rule.

They acted as a symbolic representation of their people to the colonial masters.
They participated in making decisions signing treaties on behalf of their masses.
They acted as the bridge between the colonialists and the local people they took orders from the colonialist and took back the feedback from the Africans.
They collected taxes and revenues for the colonial masters from the local people taxes like polling tax, hutting tax etc.
They dealt with judicial functions; they acted as judges, and magistrates for the wrong doers in their societies.
They acted as supervisors in colonial production; they ensured constant supply of raw materials and cheap labour for the- colonial economy.
They provided crucial information to the colonialists concerning the nature and the attitudes of Africans.
They preserved local values, culture and norms of the African societies.
The evaluation of Indirect rule.

To a greater extent indirect rule was very successful in the British colonies in the following;
It was successful to divide and rule the Africans through their local rulers who were turned into puppets of Europeans.
It also facilitated in colonial production, which ensure constant supply or raw materials supervised and monitored by local chiefs who were on the grassroots.
It minimized the cost since many African chiefs 'were not paid salaries or wages but they depended on praises, gifts and grants.
Accumulation of human power as it was available for administrative purposes e.g. in a single colony of Britain only top administrators were needed governors, provincial commissioner and district commissioner others were local chiefs.
It also achieved in reducing friction between Africa and Europeans.
Was it Indirect rule?

The British model of indirect rule was indirect theoretically, but practically it was direct rule. How?
1.      The local rulers lacked Autonomy/independence and they were subjected to direct intervention of the colonizers in making decision African countries were given autonomy but the final decision came from Europeans.
2.      All the orders were formulated by the colonizers, African chiefs were only to implement the orders and not to create or to discuss them thus a direct rule not indirect.
3.      Europeans had powers to hire and fire any local leader who disobeyed their orders.
4.      Colonizers lacked legal authority to create new political structure that did not exist before but they did.
5.      The whole process of indirect rule was to benefit Europeans the African chiefs were used as tools to enable the European to achieve their goals.

Impacts of the Indirect Rule System on African Colonies

i.              Indirect rule boosted tribalism. One of the significant political consequences of indirect rule was that it reinforced separate ethnic identities and delayed the development of national political consciousness.
ii.              Indirect rule weakened traditional administration. The traditional rulers or sultan were no longer the head of social and political orders but was rather a subordinate of the British overlord who used him to implement such unpopular measures as forced labor, taxation and military enlistment for the two world wars.
iii.      Indirect rule system promoted the problems of education, health and employment opportunities. For fear that the traditional ruling class would became members of the royal families were in most cases not encouraged to attend schools.
iv.           African educated elites were excluded from local government to participate from ruling rather British continued using uneducated local rulers.
v.               The system introduced the widened social differences among the natives. Chiefs and their relatives were somehow privileged and favored from getting social services in expense of the majority.
vi.           It led the emergence of the puppet class among the Africans, the group that were the major setback during the nationalist movement.
vii.      The system cemented and centralized bureaucracy through the use of district commissioners. This marked the beginning of the local government, a system which is now days practiced in most African governments.
viii.          The system of indirect rule failed to promote the welfare and development of the ordinary people while it made the traditional authorities not only backward looking but also unpopular both with the educated elites and the ordinary people from whom the collected taxes on behalf of the British.

 b. THE DIRECT RULE SYSTEM

The term direct rule refers to the system of administration in which traditional political and administrative organizations and the leaders are replaced with European system. This means that European officers ruled directly without using any intermediaries and it was used in the colonies with high population of white settlers such as Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Algeria.

Also can be defined as a form of colonial administrative system which ruled Africans directly by replacing African traditional, political and administrative organizations.  Direct rule was mainly adopted by Germany in colonies such as Tanganyika, Namibia, Cameroon and Togo; also Portuguese applied direct rule in her colonies.

Why British used direct rule in some of her colonies instead of Indirect rule.

1)      Presence of many whites such as in Zimbabwe.
2)      Plenty of resources available in the colonies.
3)      The nature of African colony. British decided to use direct rule when Africans were ignorant, reluctant and not supportive of indirect rule.
4)      Good communication and infrastructures such as roads, railways and harbors led the British to use direct rule.
5)      Absence of strong centralized states.
6)      Absence of resistances.
7)      Absence of tropical diseases made the British not seek for local rulers’ support.

  THE BRITISH DIRECT RULE IN ZIMBABWE [SOUTHERN RHODESIA].

Zimbabwe after being colonized by British in 1890’s under the company known as British South African Company (BSACO) led by prominent imperialist named Cecil Rhodes who ruled directly and called Zimbabwe as Southern Rhodesia due to his effort and financial resources used to occupy shone territories.

Therefore after Zimbabwe had been colonized by British and named as Southern Rhodesia many Europeans came to live in Zimbabwe because it was a huge country having a lot of resources such as fertile land and minerals due to this British ruled Zimbabwe by using direct rule.

Why British white settlers used direct rule in Zimbabwe

1.      Absence of local chief’s /local rulers of Zimbabwe such as Indunas were no longer existed during the resistance between British and Shona and Ndebele.
2.      Presence of many white settlers in Zimbabwe. Cecil Rhodes influenced many white settlers to invest in Zimbabwe so there was no manpower problem hence direct rule.
3.      The richness of resources in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was a rich colony having fertile land; minerals etc. made British to wish to rule it directly so as to exploit resources efficiently.
4.      Absence of a centralized state. Zimbabwe had no strong centralized state since imposition of colonial rule disturbed the system hence direct rule.
5.      The effect of the Chimurenga war [Shona and Ndebele], Chimurenga war left enemity between Zimbabwe people and the Europeans hence difficult to involve Africans in their administration.
6.      People of Zimbabwe did not want to be colonized by the British.
7.      Poor support from Zimbabwe local chiefs /rulers. Local chiefs were not happy with British since their position and status eroded during British colonial rule that is why they did not want to support them in administration hence British used direct rule.

Characteristics of direct rule applied by the British in Zimbabwe

1.      It based on excessive oppression and suppression. Africans were highly oppressed and suppressed by British settlers through direct rule using coercive apparatus such as police and soldiers.
2.   Zimbabwe was proclaimed as a crown colony. Direct rule in Zimbabwe made Zimbabwe as British settlers’ part and parcel of their motherland country [Britain]
3.   It based on emergence of law and order. Direct rule led to increase of many laws and orders in Zimbabwe.
4.      Direct rule led Zimbabwe to be under control of British South African Company [BSACO] in 1890 to 1923.
5.      Direct rule in Zimbabwe made educated people neglected. Direct rule in Zimbabwe made the educated people neglected not to be involved in the British government as a result of the armed struggle during fighting for independence and freedom.
6.    Direct rule gave settlers in Zimbabwe legislative and political rights. British settlers in Zimbabwe were highly empowered politically, economically and favored by laws; for example in 1923 settlers attained their self-government.
7.      Direct rule alienated Zimbabwe fertile land. Through direct rule the British settlers acquired massive fertile land left the Zimbabwean’s people landless hence provide labour in the settlers land and farms.

The British direct rule in Zimbabwe brought a lot of negative impact to the people of Zimbabwe such as; oppression, exploitation, land alienation, forced labour, taxation etc. as a result people of Zimbabwe took arms (armed struggle) during fighting for independence in 1980.

  What were the similarities and differences between indirect and direct rule.

Similarities
·         Both were based on exploitation of African resources.
·         Both based on oppression of Africans through the use of force i.e. police, arm and court.
·         Both based on racial segregation since African colour was regarded as inferior over white colour.
·         Both were capitalist systems.
·         Both aimed at colonizing control Africans.
·         Both faced resistance or opposition from Africans.
·         Both failed to meet their demands.

Differences
·         The Germans used direct rule while indirect rule was used by the British.
·         Direct rule did not use local chiefs while indirect rule used local chiefs.
·         Indirect rule did not face many resistances from Africans while direct rule faced many resistances.
·     Indirect rule was easy to manage while direct rule was difficult to manage because of language problems.
·         Indirect rule needed small Europeans’ manpower while direct rule needed large manpower.
·         Indirect rule was cheap but direct rule was expensive.
·         Indirect rule created puppet class among Africans who cooperated with the British and support British colonialism while direct rule did not

c. ASSIMILATION POLICY

Was an administrative system applied by French in her colonies, which aimed at turning or transforming Africans into Frenchmen or citizens. A person who assimilated was called Assimilador. Assimiladors was taught how to behave or think like French people. Assimilation is a term derived from the French word assimiler means cause to resemble.

French introduced assimilation policy to her colonies so as to spread her culture of superiority all over the world. Therefore the introduction or application of assimilation policy in French colonies goes to them with the introduction of French language, institutions, laws, religion and customs. Colonies or persons to follow assimilation policy (assimiladors) were supposed to follow the French culture hence enjoy right just like French citizens.

Unlike the British or Belgium the French believed in a colonial policy of cultural assimilation some time mockingly described as turning African into "Black French men". This assimilation was limited to a small elite class which felt it self smothered in alien clothes and idea revolted intellectually, they insisted on the need to strip away their French cultural wrapping in order to discover their own true color of black skins, this led to the development of the philosophy of blackness i.e. "Negritude" which stressed the essential unity of black people and self determination of Africans.

Conditions for African to be Assimilated

Should be Fluent in French language both spoken and written.
Africans should practice Monogamy a person should marry only one wife.
Military training must be compulsory to those who would like to be assimilated.
Anyone to be assimilated should be of the Age of 15 years and not above 50 years.
At least should be with ten years of experience in government services.
Any person should be ready to succumb to western culture in practice.
The reasons why French applied Assimilation policy in her colonies.

1.     French revolution of 1789. French applied assimilation policy in her colonies since they said that; the French revolution which occurred in 1789 advocated for the equality, fraternity and freedom to all regardless of Vaile or color.
2.    Assimilation policy applied by the French to spread their superiority all over the world. Since the Africans assimilated would continue to spread French superiority.
3.   To spread French culture and civilization. French applied assimilation policy since they wanted to spread their culture through language and customs.
4.     Assimilation applied to turn African to behave like French citizen.
5.      To facilitate French exploitation. Assimilation aimed at exploiting Africans smoothly by creating false consciousness to those who assimilated (assimiladors) to work for the benefits of the French.
6.      Cheap economically since assimilators work and behave just like French and became passive.

Characteristics of French Assimilation Policy

There were to be commune representatives in the French national assembly. The laws applicable in France were well applied in the territories.
 The French Africans were considered as a great obstacle for colonial rule.
The French administrative structure was more oppressive than that of the British.
  Africans were allowed to register as French citizens and they could seek elections as deputies in Paris.
The French administrators were given more judicial powers in the provinces.
The French decided not to use African traditional institutions in their administration.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ASSIMILATION SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION




THE OPERATION OF ASSIMILATION POLICY STRUCTURE APPLIED BY THE FRENCH IN THEIR COLONIES SUCH AS SENEGAL AND IVORY COAST

 Minister of colonies. Minister of colonies was the top most position in the French assimilation administrative structure. The minister of colonies stayed [lived] in Paris and he or she was in charge of all the French colonies [provinces] abroad.
A governor general. Was the second post of the French assimilation policy structure. A governor stayed at a colony [province] which was the center of the French colonies such as Dakar and Senegal in West Africa where Governor General stayed there to administer other colonies [provinces. Governor General was responsible for implementing orders and instructions from the colony secretary to colonies [provinces].
Commandant de circle. Were equivalent to paramount chiefs who were placed by the French the successor of the pre-colonial chiefs; their duties were of pre-colonial to receive orders from the governor general to their fellow Africans.
Chiefs de sub division [canton]. These leaders were in district levels that controlled important French administrative departments. Their duties were;

1.      To recruit Africans into the army.
2.      To register taxpayers in their areas.
3.      To recruit labors by force for infrastructures buildings etc.

 Chiefs de cantons. This was the lowest position in the French assimilation structure; it was occupied by village heads of sub location.

The duties/functions of the chief de canton were:
1.      Maintain French laws and orders at the village level.
2.      Collect taxes from Africans.
3.      Maintain public goods and services such as roads, schools and offices.

d. ASSOCIATION POLICY IN FRENCH COLONIES.

Association policy was the second French administrative policy/system after the failure of the assimilation policy which respected African culture and allowed them to develop independently. Association policy which replaced assimilation policy was not aiming at turning Africans to resemble French citizens, rather association policy applied by French was aimed at spreading and building of the French superiority in her colonies through different approaches such as; by using institutions and laws of the French to colonized Africans. Association policy left and allowed Africans to preserve their own customs and also compatible alongside with French interests.

French decided to shift from assimilation to association policy due to the failure of the assimilation policy which undermined African culture and spread French culture and civilization by forcing Africans to resemble with French citizens which was not practicable because it was not easy to change or turn someone who belongs to a certain cultural back ground (Africans) to behave (be) like French men. So this assimilation policy got challenges from both parts and Frenchmen in Paris were not happy to see other people given such rights as the French men.

Reasons why the Assimilation Policy failed hence introduction of the Association Policy.

1.      Economic expenses. Assimilation policy was very expensive since it needed a lot of finance to turn Africans to resemble with Frenchmen by giving them education, social services etc.
2.      Language problems differences. Africans had many languages so it was difficult for Africans to adopt French language hence failure of the assimilation.
3.      Cultural differences. Assimilation policy failed since it introduced different cultures in Africa which were different from African cultures e.g. Language, beliefs, marriage etc.
4.      It was opposed by the French people.
5.      It was opposed by Africans. Africans, who were not assimilated, opposed assimilation policy because it ignored African culture and it did not give Africans their expectations like being in top positions.
6.      Fear of the French over Africans. Assimilation policy gave Africans favor and chances in the French administration which led to fear towards the Africans.
7.    Law differences. Assimilation policy introduced laws which were different from African laws; example foreign French civil laws differ from African customary laws.
8.    Assimilation policy was a vision less policy; assimilation policy had no divisions since assimilated Africans (assimiladors) later on turned against the French.

ASSOCIATION POLICY AGAINST ASSIMILATION POLICY.

Association policy was another French administrative system which replaced assimilation policy where by the French did not interfere with African culture such as religion and other matters. Association policy was against the assimilation policy since it did not aim at turning Africans to resemble Frenchmen, however in its practice French officials under association policy tended to implement French ways of life in administration and laws purposely to spread French superiority. Association policy used more authoritarian approach of governing Africans unlike assimilation policy.

In 1914-1945 association policy treated Africans colonies as an integral part of the French since African colonies were given right to elect representatives in the French government to have free trade, unions, press and political parties. These affected African countries both positively and negatively during fighting and post Independence where by these countries, which formerly were French colonies became francophone countries which associated/assimilated into French political systems.

Similarities between Assimilation Policy and Association Policy

  Both created economic dependence. African countries especially West African countries which got independent in early 1960s, they still depend and have financial relation with their former colonial master [French] since French is their source of market for their crops.
They affected the system of education. The system of education used in former French colonies are still the same as in French up to date; the French speaking people in west Africa except Guinea still have French mentality.
African countries which were former French colonies regarded as francophone countries overseas process of French which still have close relationships with the French people in social and economic matters e.g. West African countries.
Both weakened African traditions and Islamic religion in West Africa by introducing Christianity i.e. Roman Catholic.
Both destroyed African traditional authorities and leaders since assimilated Africans replaced many to the traditional leaders.
Both undermined African culture; African culture was regarded as inferior towards French culture which regarded as regarded as superior and civilized for e.g. French language.

The difference between Assimilation Policy and Association Policy

The subjects in the association policy came under the system of law known as the indigent. In this system subjects could be forced to serve a longer period in the French colonial army than assimilated citizens which encouraged them to seek French citizenship.
With association policy assimilated Africans were regarded as French citizens but the other Africans in the French colonies were regarded as a subject that is second-class citizens to which French civil and criminal law did not apply to them.
 In the association policy the African subjects [second class citizen] retained their cultural practices such as polygamy and religion. But assimilated Africans had to follow French culture and civilization.
Assimilation policy aimed mainly at creating French superiority complex towards Africans while association policy based on authorization or controlling Africa.
Assimilation policy was impracticable while association policy was practicable since it was easy to control people than charging people to become new citizens.
Assimilation policy was very expensive since assimilated Africans were given all right such as education social services etc. as French citizens while association policy was not expensive.
Assimilation policy failed due to many challenges from both Africans and French men due to fear of lack of vision etc. while association policy did not fail.

Question: Compare and contrast between indirect rule applied by British and assimilation policy  
                  applied  by the French.


Similarities/Comparisons between indirect rule and assimilation policy

Both aimed at maintaining their colonial control so as to ensure their effective occupation.
Both were exploitative systems since they aimed at preparing a ground for establishment of colonial economy.
Both destroyed African culture since indirect rule and assimilation policy undermined (ignored) African culture such as language, education and norms.
 Both were oppressive since they based on forcing Africans to implement their laws and policies through cohesive apparatus such as police, army, prison, courts etc.
Both fractured to meet their demands because Africans did not accept colonialism hence fought against colonialists.
Both were in capitalist system.
 Both created classes.
Both faced resistances.

Contrast/differences between the British indirect rule and the French assimilation policy

Indirect rule was applied by the British while assimilation policy was applied by the French.
Indirect rule used local chiefs in administration while assimilation did not prefer to use local chiefs.
Indirect rule was cheap economically since it used local chiefs/ rulers in administration while assimilation policy was very expensive since it used a lot of resources to transform Africans into Frenchmen.
Assimilation policy was impracticable while association policy was practicable since a person with a certain cultural background cannot totally be transformed into a new culture.
Indirect rule avoided resistance while assimilation policy met a lot of challenges from both Africans and the French men hence shift to association.
Indirect rule was easy to manage while assimilation rule was difficult to manage.
 Indirect rule needed small manpower to manage while assimilation needed large manpower to implement their policies.
Indirect rule did not aim at turning Africans while assimilation policy aimed at turning Africans.
Indirect rule considered African tradition while assimilation policy did not consider African culture.
 Indirect rule did not face resistance while assimilation policy faced a lot of resistances.

     Impacts of French system of administration.

         i.    De-Africanisation; The assimilated Africans abandoned African cultural values and succumbed to French culture like religion, language, dressing, etc. which created the decline of African traditional values.
             ii.        Facilitation of colonial production; it facilitated colonial production in the acquired French colonies under the supervision of local people. Africans were intensively exploited in the so-called association policy.
           iii.        Development of class-consciousness; which resulted into ant-colonial struggles influenced by extreme exploitation and oppression of the masses.
           iv.        Assimilation policy weakened Africans traditions such as Islamic religion in West Africa by introducing Christianity for example Roman Catholic Church.
             v.        Colony was incorporated into the French republic and regarded as an overseas province of France speaking people in West African still have close relationship with the French people than their fellow African countries.
           vi.         Assimilation policy integrated allowed Africans to participate in French political matters in French Paris. Assimilation policy allowed African to participate in French parliament for example Blaise Diagne was elected as deputy in the French parliament.

COLONIAL MILITARY AND LEGAL INSTITUTIONS.

Introduction

Both colonial military and legal institutions were introduced in Africa purposely to enforce Africans to accept to follow different colonial administrative systems such as direct rule, indirect rule, assimilation policy and association policy. Therefore colonialists in order to ensure control of Africans effectively by following their new administrative systems they introduced these colonial military and legal institutions such as police, prisons army court etc.

COLONIAL MILITARY INSTITUTIONS

Colonial military refers to coercive apparatus such as police, army, prison, and courts introduced by colonialists in order to maintain laws, order and security of colonial states or government. Colonial militaries were introduced by colonialists in order to the colonial state or government to meet their interests. Therefore colonial military which were introduced in African colonies were different depended on nature of the people found in that colony. For example colonies which were militant and conservative against colonialist colonial militaries were also aggressive or harsh to the Africans.

Examples of famous colonial military force which were introduced by the British to maintain colonial control in Central and East Africa including Kenya. Uganda and Malawi in 1902-1904 was known as King African Rifle (KAR). Soldiers who were recruited to join these military forces such as KAR and the police force were taken from within the colony or outside the colony for example; Nubians were the soldiers recruited (taken) from outside the territory [colony] who were mainly preferable since they were very strictly in terms of treatment compared to the native policemen or soldiers.

King African Rifle (KAR)

Functions of colonial Military Forces

To maintain colonial interests. Colonial military aimed at safeguarding the interests of the colonialists that is to control and exploit Africans smoothly.
To suppress African resistances. Colonial military aimed at punishing Africans who were militant and opposed colonial government.
To maintain peace and harmony. Colonial military ensured that people within the colony maintain peace and harmony by following laws and orders.
To maintain security of the colony. Colonial military force was established to protect the colony from Internal and external invasion from other military forces.
 Power to arrest criminals. Colonial military was responsible to arrest people who committed crimes or offenses to the court.
 To defend colonial boundaries. Colonial military force such as KAR was responsible to defend colonial boundaries.
 To collect information and supervision of colonial activities. Colonial military forces were responsible to collect intelligent information which threatens the public interests and supervising different activities such as tax collection.
To facilitate colonial economy exploitation.
Military forces enforced colonial control in Africa.

COLONIAL LEGAL INSTITUTIONS.

Colonial legal institutions refer to the institutions which deal with legal matters within the colony. Colonial legal institutions consisted with legislative council [LEGCO], council of elders, prison and courts. The colonial legal institutions were dealing with;
 Advising the society.
 Educating the society about legal matters.
Receive people’s legal claims.
Give legal aid.
 Directing legal procedures to be taken on army cases.
The legal institutions were also established for the interests of the colonialists since they were influenced by colonial administration within the colony and metropolitan states. Council of elders was employed in direct British colonies.

Characteristics/features of colonial Legal Institutions
 Colonial legal institution was dominated/monopolized by colonialists.
Colonial legal institutions based on interests of the colonialists.
Were cohesive in nature i.e. very harsh, oppressive and punish Africans.
Were varied from one colony to another for example South Rhodesia [Zimbabwe] legal institution which was introduced in 1898 varied from other areas e.g. settlers colonies laws were very harsh to Africans.
 Colonial legal institutions were mainly based on the influences of colonial administrators within the colony and in metropolitan states.
The functions of the colonial Legal Institutions.
 To make laws, act and ordinances. Since every colony had its demand of colonial matters, the legal institutions took the responsibility of making laws or ordinances enforcing Africans to undertake various matters and also responsibilities.
 To handle claims on various issues. The legal colonial institution handle white claims and canal elders handle African claims
To direct procedures to be taken in a certain case. Colonial legal institutions had to direct the legal procedures to be taken in handling certain cases in collaboration with courts and prisons.
 To advise and educate people on various legal matters.
To amend the laws (change or modify) laws, acts and ordinance. The colonial legal institutions had a duty to amend laws, acts and ordinances in order to affect and to felt the colonial administration influenced or as a result of social, political and economical change in the colony.
Example of laws/ordinances amended were native labour ordinances of 1988 in Kenya which forced squatters (labour) to work in 90 days in settler’s forms and raise the number of days to 180 in the years.
The impacts of the Colonial Military and Legal Systems in Africa.
 The two colonial systems undermined the traditional defense and legal systems that prevailed during the pre-colonial period.
The Africans stopped caring for the public property such as government buildings, equipment and vehicles because they regarded them to be properties of colony.
All the African who were employed in the Reference forced of the colonial government were considered to be traitors their follow Africans, due to the business and brutality done by colonialists.

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