History of Tanzania part iv; German intervention and African resistances

  German intervention and African resistances

• There are two schools of thoughts of looking at African resistances:

– Colonial school of thought view Africans as lesser / weak member of human race and the resistances waged by Africans were regarded as merely foolish, fanatical, and simply the work of the uncivilized people to resist their own civilization mission. This view was held up to the 1950s when nationalist historiography began to emerged.

– The second school of thought is the Nationalist school of thought which became popular in the 1960s. This school of thought played a central role in justifying the fact that Africans were not passive, but active and capable of defending their territories and dignities from falling in the hands of colonialists. They proved that African conquest was not simple but rather a complicated process.



• Continuation…..

• In colonial Tanzania, the history of resistances covered the period between 1888 and 1907.

• The reactions were not uniform but varied from place to place. This variation was determined by social, political, ecological and military organization of each society which was encountered by the German onslaught (large and violent attack by an army)

• Categorization of African resistances in colonial Tanzania

Resistances to German intervention in colonial mainland Tanzania manifested themselves in three major forms or techniques:

ü Passive resistances

ü Collaboration / alliance

ü Active resistance

• Passive resistance

• Societies which adopted this technique did not involve themselves in any physical confrontation against the Germans. In other words, such societies did not resort to armed struggle in their opposition against the German.

– For example such societies deserted the villages when the Germans wanted to establish their rule or refused to comply with German rule or refused to cooperate with the Germans

• Though it is difficult to determine the nature, extent, and specific reasons for passive resistances, but possible reasons may be deduced:

– Some societies were mentally opposed to the Germans

– Some of these societies were prepared to fight, but having realized that the Germans were well equipped and would mow them down, they resorted to passivity, for example, the Wahangaza.

– In Buhaya, some chiefs realized that active resistance was useless as they were sure that they were going to be defeated by the Germans. Thus, they employed a technique that ensured prospects of victory like deserting their villages.

• Continuation….

– Some societies were forced into passive resistance either because of ecological conditions or nature of social-political organization

Ø Ecological conditions

A society which had been attended by diseases did not usually offer active resistance. For example:

• The war like Maasai would almost likely have offered active resistance if they had not been weakened by rinderpest in 1890s

• A similar situation faced the Wahaya. These suffered from epidemics (plagues). For example:

ü A plague of jiggers attacked Bukoba and Karagwe in late 1890s

ü Rinderpest epidemic attacked Bukoba and killed over 90% total cattle population

ü Small pox also attacked Bukoba resulting to a large number of deaths.



Ø Social conditions

• The Swahili of Kilwa refused to go in the Majimaji war because they were not socially capable of such a war. They declared that “ we are like women.”

• Some societies hoped to retain their independence by refusing to cooperate with the German colonizers.

ü For example, the Matengo assumed a form of non compliance with the Germans between 1902-1904. In one occasion, a Mandawa (village headman) was accused of inciting people against the Germans. Then, German askaris were sent to bring Mandawa down, the askaris found the entire village empty as villagers had retired into hiding. After the departure of the askaris, normal life in the village resumed.

• Collaboration / Alliance

• This was a process by which the Africans actively fought on the side of the Germans against their fellow Africans. It was used in societies where two or more societies were in traditional conflicts, particularly protracted wars. Thus, one tribe, particularly the weaker one, sided with the Germans in order to fight and defeat the stronger tribe. However, at the end of the war, both societies were colonized. For example:

– Merere, chief of Usangu, collaborated with the Germans because he was against Mkwawa who threatened the survival of his empire.

– Kiwangu, chief of Mahenge, collaborated with the Germans during the Majimaji war because he had been the enemy of Mkwawa for so long in history

– Rindi, chief of Marangu, collaborated with the Germans against Sina chief of Kibosho.





• Continuation…..

• African collaboration with the Germans was triggered by a number of reasons:

– African rulers wanted to establish and maintain trading relations with the Germans

– African rulers hoped to gain material benefits, like weapons, and especially guns from the Germans

– African rulers, especially the weaker one, hoped to expand their boundaries by conquering their long standing enemies through collaboration with the Germans.

– Some rulers hoped to be protected by the Germans having collaborated with them

– Some rulers wanted to establish friendship with the German through collaboration, though they never new that the Germans had a secrete behind that friendship, which of course was very temporary

• Active resistance

• This is where some societies fought the Germans by force of arms. There were a series of military campaigns organized by Africans against the Germans in colonial Tanzania. Some of these offensives were organized along the coast where as others were organized in the interior. The most important are described below.

• Responses along the coast

Responses along the coast of colonial Tanganyika were caused by commercial activities of German East African Company which threatened to undermine commercial interests of the rich Arab and local Swahili merchants. For example:

ü Arab and Swahili had large coconut and cereal plantations which relied entirely on slave labor. Company’s measure to suppress slave trade was therefore a direct threat to the survival of the plantations.

ü In 1888 company officials started collecting tax from every one including the rich merchants and feudal lords. This was highly resisted by the two classes along the coast.

ü In all the coastal towns, the Germans hoisted a German flag in place of the Sultan’s flag and in some cases deliberately violated Islamic laws

ü Company officials started controlling trade along the caravan routes. Thus, profits from the caravans began to flow towards the company, instead of flowing towards the Arab and Swahili traders as it used to be.

• Continuation….

• All such abuses were bitterly resented by the merchants ( Swahili and Arab) and landlords. The resentments produced sporadic (periodic) out break of violence along the coast of colonial Tanganyika.

• One of such outbreak was led by Abushiri bin Salum el Hathi of Pangani.

• A: Abushiri resistance 1888-1890

• The resistance began when German East Africa gained control over a number of coastal towns and trading centers along the coast of colonial Tanganyika through bogus treaties which company officials made with the local rulers.

• At the onset of 1889, Abushiri and his cohorts drove out the Germans from the coastal towns and began to rule them. Bagamoyo and Dar es salaam, however, could not fell in the hands of Abushiri because the two towns were a strong foothold of the Germans.

• To ensure a total suppression of the revolt, the Germans and the British had to collaborate to ensure that they defend their interests effectively. In this collaboration:

– The British utilized their naval base which had been in the Indian ocean suppressing slave trade



• Continuation…..

– German chancellor ordered Captain Herman Von Wiseman, who had wide experience in the region to command German force. German force consisted of 21 German officers, 600 Sudanese mercenaries, 400 Zulu mercenaries and some askaris from Tanganyika. With this force Von Wiseman began his campaign against Abushiri.

Ø Starting from Bagamoyo in may 1889, within a month, the Germans had regained a number of the coastal towns. Following severe German attacks, Abushiri was unable to coordinate his forces effectively.

ü As a result, Abushiri fled to Mpwapwa in the interior. Here again, Abushiri was crushed down when Von Wiseman captured Mpwapwa. From Mpwapwa, Abushiri fled again to Usagara

• Continuation….

üFinally, Abushiri was betrayed by a local ruler, Maganya of Usagara. He was captured and publically hanged in Bagamoyo on 15th December, 1889. This public hanging was intended to serve as a lesson to would be resistors.

üBwana Heri continued the struggle in the North. After loosing Saadan, which was his base, he established himself outside the town by setting a very strong fortress. From his fort, he gallantly resisted the Germans until he was persuaded to surrender.

• B. Makunganya resistance of 1890

• Having crushed Abushiri in the North, Von Wiseman turned his campaign to the southern coastal areas. Local rulers in Lindi and Mikindani negotiated for peace, but Kilwa put up a very strong resistance led by Hassan bin Omari Makunganya.

• In early 1890, Makunganya attacked German fort in Kilwa. However, his forces suffered a humiliated defeat. Makunganya fled inland where he planned for a second attack.

• This attempt was pre-empted by timely German attack. Makunganya was captured and hanged on a mango tree in Kilwa Kivinje in may, 1890.

ü From then onwards, German administrators used to hang other victims. The hanging of Makunganya marked the end of coastal resistances against the Germans.

• Responses in the interior

• Having crushed coastal resistances, the German colonial state which had taken over the functions of the German East Africa company on the 1st January, 1891 turned its attention to the interior.

• In the interior, African resistances were also severe. Such resistances were led by dominant classes (ruling classes). These dominant classes were able to put armed struggle against the Germans. Others, however, compromised for their position by forming alliance with the Germans

• A: The Hehe resistance 1891-1898

• This is one of the best example of fierce military resistance against the Germans. It was waged by the Hehe under their formidable leader, Chief Mkwavinyika ( meaning the “conqueror of lands”). This chief was also popularly known as Mkwawa. This resistance had its origin from commercial activities as it was along the cost.

• By 1891, the Germans had occupied Usagara, Ukaguru, Mpwapwa, and the rest of Ugogo areas. However, these areas had been important trading centers for the Hehe, and therefore a major source of income (revenue) for the Hehe ruling class.

• German occupation over those trading centers deprived the Hehe ruling class of its revenue. This was the major sources of the conflict.



• Continuation…..

• Initially Mkwawa wanted to avoid a costly war against the Germans through negotiations over the areas that the Germans had occupied.

• In his efforts to negotiate, Mkwawa sent a delegation with presents to meet the German administrators at the coast (Dar es salam). Surprisingly, all men in the delegation were murdered and the Germans wanted Mkwawa to surrender his sovereignty.

• Following the assassinations, Mkwawa responded by blocking all the caravan routes which passed through his empire. This move disrupted German trade, denying them the much needed raw materials from the interior.

• Following this conflict, Germans authority sent military expedition to deal with Mkwawa. This German expedition / group was led by Emil Von Zelewsky.

• Continuation….

• The expedition prepared by the Germans was attacked by Mkwawa’s well trained forces on 16th august 1891 at Lugalo. 300 askaris and ten German officials including Zelewsky himself were killed. Mkwawa’s forces captured three German canons (large heavy guns, usually put on wheels) and 300 rifles.

• This Hehe victory shocked the Germans who underestimated military capabilities of the Hehe. It took three years for the Germans to prepare their forces before they decided to revenge.

• When they were to ready to revenge, the Germans sent to Mkwawa a delegation demanding that:

– Mkwawa recognizes Germany authority



• Continuation…..

– Mkwawa pay a war reparation following massive loss that the Germans incurred when Mkwawa attacked them in 1891.

– Mkwawa abandon raiding neighboring territories

– Mkwawa should surrender the arms (canons and riffles) that he seized during the 1891 attacks

– Mkwawa should generally open up Uhehe for European traders and missionaries.

• All these German demands touched the very life line of the Hehe ruling class, and of course, were rejected outright by Mkwawa.

• In October 1894, the Germans attacked and captured Kalenga, Mkwawa’s capital. Mkwawa escaped and waged a guerrilla warfare for the next four years. The Germans caught up with Mkwawa finally. Tired, sick and alone, he was trapped and surrounded by German forces in July, 1898. rather than fall captivity, Mkwawa shot himself.





• B : The Nyamwezi resistance.

• The Nyamwezi had conducted trade with the Germans for sometime. But soon the Nyamwezi realized that, the Germans wanted to control the whole land of Unyamwezi, control trade and rule them.

• It was Isike who led the his people to expel the Germans. They took up arms and closed trade routes for a number of months.

• But finally, the Nyamwezi were defeated by the superior German forces. Isike committed suicide in january1893.

• C : The Yao resistance

• In their resistance, the Yao were led by their chief, Machemba. He was summoned to the coast by German governor in 1890, but refused to go, and replied to him in writing :

• “ I have listened to your words, but I can find no reason why I should obey you. I would rather die first…..Aim Sultan here in my land. You are Sultan in yours…..I will not come to you, and if you are strong enough, then come and fetch me”.



• This rejection of surrender marked the beginning of armed struggle between the Yao and the German imperialists. The Yao struggled went on until 1899 when they were finally defeated.