What are the importance of each Element of Culture ?

THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

1) Language

Is an important in element of culture because it is used as a medium of communication in the society. It can also serve as an identify of a given society in particular or nation in general. For example Kiswahili language in Tanzania.

2) Traditions

Some tradition such as marriages and burial ceremonies play a key role of uniting people together when the meet to conduct or cerebrating the event.

3) Norms

Are social rule that guide behavior they specify the behavior that is appropriate or not in a given situation, norms a given as guideline on how we should act or not act not act on our daily activities.

4) Value

Help society to adopt acceptable behavior shape and individual personalities. A decent dressing for instance, can mark some one look smart and presentable in a certain occasion like wedding ceremony.

5) Ideology

Is important because it enables that society to explain, justify and order several existential condition which would otherwise prove impossible to explain .It also serves as mean for self identification for individual and group that adhere to it.

6) Art and creative

Are used by the people to express their feeling or attitude toward a certain events. The feeling can be expressed through such things like song, drama, picture e.t.c,. Other forms of arts such as painting and drawing are used for decorations.

7) Custom

Used by different societies are very important to the members of that particular society. Among other things are used to represent various object and events to the people.

8) Recreation

Provide household with necessary material such as furniture, pots, which are daily, also some of them can be sold to earn people income

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What are ten (10) elements of Culture ?

ELEMENT OF CULTURE

The following are the element of culture;



Cooperation

Language

Law

Customs

Tradition

Ideology

Recreation

Art and creation

Norms

Fashion




There are ten element of culture

i) Cooperation

These elements manifest themselves in physical and social bond of the society in various activities. It gives chances for members to learn and do things together in community e.g. harvesting, initiation ceremonies

ii) Norms and laws

Law is a deliberately from adopted rules of behavior that are enforced by spend authority.

Are social rules that guide behavior. They specify the behavior that is appropriate or not in a given society. Norms give as guideline an hour we should act so that we can get with our daily activity. Norms have to categories Mores and Folkways.

Mores- Are those norms which society considers them to be of great Moral significance. Those who violate them are defined as sinful, evil, wicked and offender. The punishment to them is various including death, imprisonment torture e.c.t. Such more that may lead to harsh punishment are also called taboos e.g. murder, treason, rape, theft e.c.t.

Folkways- these are customary and habitual ways by which the members of a group do things. Folkways are considered as less important norms in which the violators of them get mild punishment. Example of the common folkways is time for appointment, greetings and washing clothes.

iii) Arts and crafts

As elements of culture arts are expression, which reflect feelings attitude and the level of development of a given society as struggling for existence and survival in a particular environment. These achievements could either be bound, political or economic ones.

Craft- Refers to the objects fashioned or created and used by a particular society example of craft include furniture, clay pots, baskets, sculptures, graphics and many others. Crafts can also reflect the cultural values and technology of the concerned society.

iv) Recreation

Reaction means relaxing and amusing work makes the body and mind to get tired so that mean med a roast. E.g. To participates in sports and games or dance hand: of show ground where sports and games are formed.

v) Ideology

Is a systematized and interconnected set of ideas about the social- economic and political organization of society as a whole. It contains ideals, ends purposes that a society should pursue. Ideology lay down the principle and condition to be followed by given society.

vi) Tradition

Traditions resemble custom they are experienced of the past are inherited by a society and they are unchangeable. Examples Marriage, funeral ceremonies, family care and courtship, sport and game.

vii) Language

Is a socially structured system of sound patterns, written words or signs with specific and arbitrary meaning used by a society for communication. It has a major role of creating interaction between and among people in short it binds the separate human lives together. Language is the most distinctive and complex achievement of human beings it is used to express physical and spiritual wishes.

viii) Customs

Customs these are pattern of habit, transmitted from one generation to another generation such customs include foods, clothes, shelter, argument, education, worship, names, greeting, love another generation such customs include foods, clothes, shelter, argument, education, worship, names, greeting, love and beauty obedience.

ix) Values

Is abstract idea of what is described correct and good that most member of a society share. They are conceptions or standards by which members of a society evaluate people, objects and events as to the relative worth, merit, beauty or morality. Value is used by the member of society to distinguish the desirable from the undesirable, what is good and bad the beautiful from the ugly.

x) Fashion

Are highly passing pattern of behavior fashion allows many change in norms Example Arts dressing etc.

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What are the two aspects of culture ?

ASPECT OF CULTURE



Culture consists of two main aspects;


·         Material culture
·         Intellectual culture/ non material culture

1. MATERIAL CULTURE
Material culture refers to tangible or physical artifacts (objects) made by human being. They include such things like spears, cooking pots, houses, coins, computer, stools, sofa sets and many others. These cultural objects reflect the nature of the society in which they were made. Material culture shows the extent to which man has achieved in mastering the nature. Such achievement include the level reached in the production of the instruments of labour, the technical skills developed, the scientific organization of labour, the availability of everyday needs of human and many others achievements.



2. INTELLECTUAL CULTURE/NON-MATERIAL CULTURE
Non - material culture: These are intangible or abstract creations of human society. They include such things like values, beliefs, symbols, norms, language and institutional arrangements.

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The meaning and importance of Culture

What is culture?

Culture is the total way of life in a given society.

Is a phenomenon that is practiced by all societies in the world. As a universal phenomenon it has bees held as a mankind asset which un-holds and perpetuates his time announced virtues. Culture links the past and present and synthesize man achievement and as nation.




Culture can be defined as a total way of life of particular society in a given time and environment as a total way of life it embraces all that has been created by man excluding all that has been given to him by nature. Therefore it includes thing like art and craft, language, education, politics, beliefs, technology, symbol, value, norms, customs, tradition and many others.

Culture is acquired or absorbed by man through living and participate in the cultural life of his group and changed by contact which outside cultures or inspiration from within.




IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE

• The notable importance of culture include the following;

• First, through culture a society passes on the knowledge, skill and wisdom from the elders to the young generation. Culture for that matter is used as a medium of bringing up the young to become respectable member of their society. Such knowledge and skill are passed on to the young generation through various cultural activities such as initiation ceremonies.

• Another importance of culture is that teaches the youth about various social values such as language, taboos and beliefs of the societies. It can also inculcate political and economic values and beliefs of the societies. It can also inculcates political and economic values of the society

• Third importance of culture is that, it serves as an identity of a particular society. Culture helps one society to be easily identified from other societies, or a nation from other nation. For example people from Tanzania can easily be identified from other people of East Africa simply because of the fluent speaking of Kiswahili language when compared with people from Kenya and Uganda. Maasai people can be identified from other people just because of their style of dressing known as "LUBEGA" and the way they plait or cut hairs which is quite different from other societies.

• Fourthly, culture is importance because it helps to promote unity among the people. It binds people together as one society or nation. This becomes possible because of the same culture value that the member of the particular society share together such value includes things like language, taboos, customs etc.

• The fifth importance of culture is that it exposes the younger to tasks similar those of their elders. This is achieved through such things initiation ceremonies where both the girl and the boys are given special training concerning with proper morals of their societies. Another place where the young ones learn various tasks similar to that of their elder is in the family. Family as the first institution of socialism play a significant role in educating the young ones about various task similar to those of their family member and their society in general.

• Through work of art culture can serve as a means of providing people with enjoyment or entertainment. For examples various kinds of tradition dances, music, sport and games etc. are used for entertainment people after long period of work or passing through hard or difficulties such as war, hunger etc. Cultural traditional dances, music and game are also used to entertain people during various ceremonies such as wedding birthday and many others.

• Lastly, culture equips the young people with insightful knowledge concerning with bad and good cultural practices. This help to refrain them from bad cultural that might have a bad impact to them.

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Why African Resistance against the imposition of colonialism Failed?

Why African Resistance Failed?

• It is true that many societies resisted against Europeans invaders but most of those resistance failed and African were defeated. The failure of Africans reactions was associated with the numbers of factors such as;

• Disunity among the African rulers. The Africans failed to unite together to fight for their enemy. Example in West Africa, Tanganyika, Angola, Namibia and Central Africa.

• Internal political factions in some Africa states contributed towards the defeat. Due to the disarray of many African states there was no time for cohesion to be against the enemy.

• Military and modern technology superiority of Europeans. Due to industrial revolution in Europe they were able to manufacture superior firearms which were used during the war against the Africans who most of them were using poor weapons.

• A disciplined and well-organized army helped to defeat African. The colonial armies were better trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics.

• The Europeans wanted to maintain and preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly. 

• Instability and public misery of Africans. Most of Africans were fought with bitterness which culminate into greater devastation, villages were burnt, farmland destroyed and animals looted. This ended up with gross loss of property, fear and famine.

• Religious division created serious problems for African unity. Religious disunity poisoned the cohesion of Africans. E.g. antagonism existed between Tijaniyya and Quidirrija brother in Algeria facilitated failure of resistance against the French.

• The unpopularity of some African leaders to their subjects led European victory.

• Natural calamities such as famine, drought and epidemic made it difficult for Africans to maintain stiff resistance.

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What are the Significance of the Early african Resistances

Significance of the Early Resistances.

i. Primary resistances helped to shape the environment of later African politics because of their impacts upon the thinking and action of the colonial authorities. The formation of TANU in Tanganyika had connection with Maji Maji and other associations.

ii. Primary resistances brought about the collapse of the commercial companies, which were at first employed by the German and British to open East Africa spheres of influence. So this forced the two governments to take direct responsibility.

iii. Primary resistances helped to change the early European attitudes of superiority. The thinking of administrators and settlers especially in Tanganyika and Southern Rhodesia after Maji Maji and Shona and Ndebele rising of 1896-1897, were dominated by fear of the repetition of such horrible outbreaks.

iv. Primary resistances showed Europeans that Africans were not willing to be colonized by Europeans. They wanted to remain' with their traditional ways of living.

v. Primary resistances displayed African grievances to the Europeans, e.g. Land alienation, forced cultivation, taxation, and low wages.

vi. Primary resistances forced Europeans to change their methods of ruling Africans. For example, in Tanganyika after the Maji Maji war the Germans made changes in their way of ruling including land ownership, taxation, whipping people in public etc.

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Why Ethiopia was not colonized

WHY ETHIOPIA ESCAPED COLONIALISM 

• Ethiopia was the only country in Africa that escaped colonialism. By 19th century all African nations had been dominated by the colonialists save Ethiopia there are various reasons that explain why Ethiopia managed to escape colonialism, these include the following forces; 

• The defeat of Italy in the battle of Adowa in 1896 made other European countries to fear to colonize Ethiopia; they thought that they might be defeated like Italy.

• The existence of powerful Emperors like emperor Theodore who once proposed to marry the queen of England, Emperor Yahannes 1867-1876, Emperor Menelik, these powerful leaders consolidated Ethiopia and made it strong enough to be colonized.

• The existence of Ahamaric language which promoted solidarity and unity within the Ethiopian society that made it solid able enough to resist the European powers from colonizing her.

• Poor geographical position and bad climatic condition such as- infertile soils; rocky lands and mountains of Ethiopia discouraged many Europeans to colonize it.

• Accessibility the modern weapons from Europe. After the Brussels treaty of 1890 in Belgium, Ethiopia managed to get more weapons from Europe to defend her self.

• The military strategic position of Ethiopia she is a mountainous country which could strategically able to defend her self from any intruder.

• The existence of Christianity ever since even before the advent of colonialist in Africa. Christianity has been adopted as a state religion; it brought awareness, civilization and unity among the Ethiopians which made it impossible to be colonized easily.

• Divisions among European powers during the colonization of Africa, every capitalist country was fighting alone to get more colonies, emperor Menelik used such chance to defend his country.

• The weakness of Italian army. Italy had just unified was not strong enough, this enabled Ethiopia to defeat her at the battle of Adowa in 1896.

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What are the effects of Nama and Herero uprising of 1904-1907

The Effects of Nama and Herero uprising

i. After the uprising, the Nama and Herero lost their cattle and land to Germans. They became very poor and lived in severe life that could not enable to live in conducive environment and good life.

ii. The chief township in Namibia was officially abolished by German government.

iii. Namibia became a Germans colony and German administration continued to be strong. For this reason, the Nama and Herero uprising did not materialize and had very minimal effect compared to that of Majimaji in Tanganyika.

iv. The African communities, such as Herero lost their life, only 16,000 Herero survived out of previous population on 80,000, whereas only 9800 Nama were alive in 1911, compared to 20,000 people who lived in 1892.

v. There was an increasing number of Germans in Namibia. For example up to 1903 the number of German was about 4,640 but after the war the number increased to 14,840 in 1913.

vi. After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where Africans women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour.




After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where African women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour. The Nama-Herero uprising went on until the end of 1905 when the Nama chief Witbooi was killed. Since then the Nama unity began to decline gradually. The Nama leadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon cooper, who continued the resistance until 1907 though the German reasserted their control. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero independence was destroyed by the German forces. They confiscated their cattle and deposed all their chiefs. African communities which survived were subordinated, forced to work in German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African communities up to the period of the First

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what are the Meaning and the Causes of Nama and Herero uprising of 1904-1907

NAMA AND HERERO UPRISING IN NAMIBIA (1904-1907)




The German occupation and imposition of its colonial rule in Namibia met with a limited success in the 1880’s and 1890’s. The region was inhabited by three main ethnic groups, the first and second group comprised Bantu people of Ambo and Herero who engaged in crop cultivation and livestock keeping. The other group comprised the Nama who were Hottentots and engaged in Pastoralism. Both groups depended on land for cultivation and pasture, The history of Namibia in the nineteenth century was characterized by intense conflicts between the Nama and Herero who angered in Pastoralism and hunting. After the arrival of Europeans, the conflict was intensified since this foreigner' s used the rivalry for their benefit. The Herero welcomed Germans who offered them a treaty of-protection and proposed to help them against the Nama. But this German and Herero alliance was opposed by the Nama leader Hedrick Witbooi since he understood the nature and real aims of Germans.




Chief Hedrick Witbooi realized that the Herero Chief could become just a mere subordinate chief under the German government. The Nama and Herero rivalry threatened the German missionaries. Later on, in 1884, the Germans declared a protectorate over Namibia; they also occupied the region effectively. The German government introduced the settler policy between 1884 and 1904, which affected both the Nama, and Herero hence accumulated a lot of grievances which resulted into uprising.




Causes of Nama and Herero uprising

i. Cattle raiding that were done frequently by the German traders and settlers. As cattle was among of the treasured commodity among the Nama and Herero communities, robbing of cattle threatening the economic interest of African commodities.

ii. The imposition of forced labour in 1896. German wanted labour to work in plantations and in construction of infrastructures such as roads, railways as well as public buildings. The German government used force to obtained laborers which discontented the Africans; thus decided to take up arms and against the Germans.

iii. Land alienation. This includes grabbing of the best grazing land in the central plateau of Namibia. German government reserved the land for settler settlement which in turn created hostility between African communities and Germans.

iv. Imposition of taxes. The German imposed tax that had to be paid by Africans, they began to demand tax in 1896 and in order to make effective collection of taxes they use force which led Africans to resist by taking up arms against the Germans.

v. The destruction of traditional authority, after they had established their control over Namibia, Germans did not pay attention to the region. For example they imposed some policies without consulting some traditional chiefs from Africans.

vi. Harassment to the Herero indebted people by German following the credit ordinance of 1903 that all debts had to be collected in one year time, after which the debt would be invalid.

vii. The outbreak of rinder pest diseases, which killed about 90% of Nama and Herero’s cattle in 1903. This affected their economy many sold their land to German settler in order to sustain their life. But the rinder pests diseases was interpreted by religious leaders punishment from God since the Nama and Herero cooperated by the whites, thus the people had to resist against the German so as to get rid of these misfortunes.

viii. The German control over religious beliefs. The Nama believed on their traditional religions and trusted their religious leaders, but when their beliefs were threatened by Germans, chiefs organized and motivated his subjects to resists against the German.

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What are the Effects of the Shona and Ndebele ( Chimulenga) Uprising of 1896-1897

The Effects of the Shona and Ndebele Uprising of 1896-1897

• The Chimurenga warriors were taught bitter lesson and many of them died during the confrontation.

• The BSAC administration incorporated and expropriated more fertile land and cattle as war indemnity.

• The company administration received much criticism from the colonial office for mistreatments of the natives. Then Cecil Rhodes guaranteed to make changes in governing the Matebeleland.

• The Ndebele were redistributed new lands in the lowlands where they lived happily unperturbed by the company and European mistreatment.

• The Ndebele Indunas were considered and employed in various administrative positions under the BSAC administration.

• Most of the educated Ndebele were given responsibilities as administrators in Mashonaland.

• Mashonaland and Matebeleland were allocated to Most European settlers created their settlement in the fertile land that formerly belonged to Shona and Ndebele.

• Many Africans adopted Christianity due to the inability of Mwari cult and the Chanimuka (medium spirit) to defeat the Whiteman.

• Because of the failure in war the Mwari cult leaders could no longer command popularity in the eyes of a rising number of people abandoning traditional religion and adopting Christianity.

• The confrontations witnessed the unification of traditional foes against the shared enemy, a cohesion that was exploited well.

• The Ndebele's claims were recognized and were given worthy treatments from the whites, because the Ndebele looked for peace while the Shona persisted in war.

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What is the Meaning and Causes of the uprising of the Mashona and matebele or chimulenga war in zimbabwe 1896 - 1897

THE MASHONA-MATEBELE (CHIMULENGA) UPRISING IN ZIMBABWE (1896-1897)




The whites created their settlement in Mashonaland in 1890. They thought that the Shona might thank the whites and were grateful to them since they could protect them against their traditional rivals, the Ndebele. But the matter was not so. The whites had misconceptions about the Ndebele, for they thought that with the fall of Lobengula, the son of Mzilikazi, the Ndebele power was completely dwarfed and could not stage war. As a result, in 1896, the whites were caught by surprise, for there was a more or less joint uprising between the Shona and Ndebele. In April 1896, the Matebele started a war that spread like summer fire to the Mashona tribe. In June of the same year, the war broke out in Mashonaland. The war was motivated by outstanding political, social, and economic dissatisfactions against the white men.




The Causes of the uprising.

• Loss of land. The white alienated the better and fertile land of the Mashona. On the other hand, the Ndebele were pushed into the reserves, which had water shortage, this caused dissatisfaction and unrests hence people took up arms to resist this situation.

• Forced Labour. Africans in both Matebele and Mashona were forced to supply labour to the colonial settles. All able bodied men had to work regardless of their former status in the societies and they were recruited by armed force.

• Harsh treatment. The colonialists treated the Mashona and Matebele people harshly. The elderly people were flogged and killed in public, and the conditions in the mines were deplorable.

• Taxation policies. In 1894, Hut tax was introduced; some of the Shona chiefs and their people refused new laws introduced by the colonial administration as well as British ways of collecting taxes. Those who failed to pay tax were persecuted and jailed without trial.

• Low wages. Africans who were forced to work in mines and whites farms were paid lowly although they worked for long hours and heavy works.

• The abolition of Induna age regiments among the Matebele. The Matebele were made to suffer socially and psychologically. Indunas were deprived of their power, importance and position.

• Interference in the Shona trade. The desire of British South Africa Company to control trade in the Mashona land contributed to the uprising.

• Desire for their lost independence. The Ndebele people resisted in order to regain their post independence, none of the Induna was appointed in any responsible administrative position.

• Missionaries disregarded the traditional and customs of the Shona and Ndebele people. In Matebele land, the missionaries wanted the Ndebele to change their religions based on Mwari cult.

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Reasons for why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated.

Why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated? 

(i) Anglo–French conspiracy. Between 1889 and 1890 Samori had reached an agreement with the British to supply arms to Samori’s armies up to 1896. But in 1896 the British breached the treaty by occupying Sierra Leone thus blocking Samori’s access to arms supplies. In the same year British forced occupied the Gold Coast making it impossible for Samori to form a military alliance with Ashanti.

(ii) Shortage of military weapons. Surrounded by enemies, Samori doubled efforts to manufacture arms within his empire. However, these were not sufficient for the' ever-increasing war demands. In 1889 the French managed to defeat Samori's forces. Samori was captured and exiled to Gabon where he died two years later.

(iii) Disunity among rulers. The resisters were unable to unite together as their enemy was common. Samori sought alliance with Ahmed Seku of Tukola and Tieba of Sikasso with no success. In fact, these rulers even assisted the French in defeating Samori.

(iv) A disciplined and well-organized army helped to defeat Africans. The colonial armies were better-trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics. Hence the armies led by Samori Toure did not stand a chance. Thus the Africans were taught a lesson, that those "modern" societies with institutionalized war and professionalism in modern fighting techniques could never be defeated by warfare.

(v) The Europeans wanted to preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly.

(vi) Instability and public misery were also a major factor in defeat. The wars of resistance of Samori Toure were fought with bitterness which culminated into greater devastation. Villages were set on fire, farmlands destroyed animals looted. This ended up with loss of property, year and famine and stirred up local resistances.

(vii) Lack of support from communities. The non- Mandika communities and non- Muslims in the empire did not give him full support because they had been mistreated during his leadership. Some decided to support the French forces against him.

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Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for so long?

Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for so long?



(i) Strong army. Samori Toure had established strong army of approximately 12,000 men and about 90,000 reserves. He had a standby army, trained military men who could be taken in emergence, cases to help the permanent army.

(ii) Modern weapons. Samori Toure had excess to modern arms that he had acquired from the coastal traders' that he had been friend with them. Samori Toure had established friendship with the coastal traders for quite some time, lie also had military workshops which supplied him with weapons and repaired his defected weapons.

(iii) Samori Toure had a lot of wealth from trade in slaves, gold and colanuts, which was utilized in rewarding his workers and soldiers for their services.

(iv) Some of the Samori soldiers had served in the French army where they had acquired modern military techniques and so were able to respond effectively to the invaders. These soldiers passed those skills to the rest of the Army.

(v) He was determined to maintain and preserve his independence in the eyes of Europeans advance. This motivated him to resist for a long time.

(vi) Samori Toure established state control of agriculture and markets to ensured regular food supply for the army. Availability of food to the soldiers encouraged them to fight for long time.

(vii) The use of guerrilla or commando tactics of surprise ambushes and right raids. This helped Samori Toure occasionally to win the war. The French soldiers found the Mandika people too difficult to control

(viii) He used scorched earth military technique such as burning villages and destroying crops in order to make the French starve when they reached the area.

(ix) Samori Toure got support from the Mandika people in national war of defense. This support helped Samori Toure to resist for a long time.

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Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898)?

Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898)?
(i) The French activities of selling arms to Samori's enemies, such as Tieba of Sikasso alarmed Samori Toure. The French' aimed at weakening the Mandika so as to acquire it smoothly.

(ii) Samori Toure was shocked by the failure of his plan of playing off the British against the French. He had signed an agreement with the British on non-interference in each other's sphere of influence. Unfortunately, the British refused to support Samori against the French.

(iii) Samori Toure wanted to protect the independence of his empire. The use of force by the French in acquiring colonies could not be tolerated by Samori Toure

(iv) The French wanted to conquer Mandika when Samori's empire had reached at its peak with military supremacy and economic prosperity. The French therefore threatened Samori's territorial expansion into areas which they claimed belonged to them.

(v) Samori wanted to safeguard trade. He was determined to, defend commercial centres and the trade routes and maintain regular supplies of firearms.

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What were the reactions to french invasion in West Africa

REACTION TO FRENCH INVASION IN WEST AFRICA




(i) Reaction to French invasion Senegambia

French military conquests in West Africa, were first directed against Senegambia during the rule of Mohmadou Lamine, and against Guinea then under Samori Toure. The major aim of the French was to capture the trading centers of Western Sudan and the strategic area between Upper Senegal and Niger. They had already built warehouses and fortresses along these rivers to control trade in palm oil, groundnuts, and gold from the interior. However, the power base of African ruling classes lay in the control of this trade. This was one of the factors of the conflict between the French imperialists forces and the African rulers.




The French employed a number of techniques to conquer the territory One of this was to- utilize existing local differences, or to initiate new conflicts between African ruling groups. To be able to conquer Senegambia, the French formed alliances with the empires of Tukulor under Sheikh Ahmaddu, Bandu Empire under Umar Penda and Khasso under Luku Sambala. In so doing the French managed to' conquer and subjugate the weaker states.




(ii) Reaction to French Invasion of Guinea

Samori Toure of Guinea illustrates for many people the courage and determination of African resistance to European conquest. Samori Toure was successful for sixteen years in preventing his own state from being colonized by the French. Although he was ultimately defeated, the duration of his resistance was in itself a victory, which can only be understood by looking back to the earlier period of his life.




Samori Toure was born into a Malinke family, the first child of a -farmer who had strongly family connections with the Dyula, the trading community of the Malinke people. The Dyula lived in the great commercial centers on the northern edge of the West African forest belt separating the inland regions from the Gulf of Guinea. They were also very famous in the commercial centers along the trans-Sahara trade routes such as Timbuktu, Taghaza and Walata. Commodities such as cloth, iron tools and salt were carried by the Dyula merchants and exchanged with forest products such as palm oil, kola nuts, and ivory. Firearms also occupied a very important position in-this trade.




At the age of eighteen he asked to be released from his duties on the farm and be allowed to join the Dyula. For about five years he built, up strong, business and made many contacts throughout the Western Sudan. This life was interrupted in 1852 when his mother 'was made captive by Soni Birama, the King of Bisandugu.Samori offered his services as a soldier to Soni Birama in return for his mother's freedom.




Samori's power and leadership attracted many followers and within a few years he found that he was strong enough to be independent of Soni Birama, He set out to control the whole of Malinke land and thus to maintain peace, law and order. He was joined by many minor leaders and supported, by his family.




By 1879 his territory had stretched from Sierra Leone to the Ivory Coast in the West from Bamako in the north to the Liberian borders in the south. His authority was based more on his military power than on his religious leadership. His arm was composed of young captives, soldiers trained mostly as foot soldiers-the infantry. His army could have at total of ten or twelve thousand fully equipped soldiers.




Samori determined to defend commercial centers and the trade routes, always sought to acquire and maintain regular supplies of firearms, ammunitions and horses for his army. He was helped by the Dyula merchants in this endeavour. The merchants obtained the firearms through trade with European merchants. Samori further maintained a group of skillful craftsmen who repaired and even made guns.




In 1882, French forces of occupation started advancing towards Bamako. They demanded that Samori should keep away from the large Bambara and Mandingo markets. Samori rejected the demand and managed to keep the French off up to 1890. From 1891 to 1898 Samori conducted guerrilla warfare. He organized an excellent system of military intelligence to spy on enemy troop movements.

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