BASICS
OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
Primates
Primates are members of the mammalian order primates, divided into the
two suborders of prosmians (Lower Primates) and anthropoids (Higher Primates).
Today we will first examine the common features of the living primate,
then this will be followed by the introduction of different animals that belong
to the order primate (classification of primates).
COMMON PRIMATES TRAITS
All primates belong to the class Mammalia, and they share all common
features of mammals.
- The bodies of primates are covered with
dense hair which provides insulation. Even humans have hair in various
places, though perhaps not always for insulation.
- Primates generally are omnivorous; that
is, they eat all kinds of food, including insects and small animals, as
well as fruit, seeds, leaves and roots.
- Most primates have opposable thumb a
feature that allows an even more precise and powerful grip and climbing.
- Primates are characterized by stereoscopic
vision (allow depth perception). Their eyes are directed forward purposely
to allow them to focus on insects or other food or a distant branch with
both eyes at once.
- Most primates also have color vision,
perhaps to recognize when plant foods (mainly fruits) are ready to eat. As
a matter of fact, vision is extremely important to primate life.
- Primates’ reproductive system sets this
order of animals apart from other mammals. Males of most primate species
have a pendulous penis that is not attached to the abdomen by skin. On the
other hand, most of female primate species have two nipples on the chest.
- Primates give birth to live young that
develop to a considerable size within the mother and are nourished by
suckling from the mother’s mammary glands.
Young primates have a relatively long period of
dependence on adults after birth. This period is also a time of learning from
their elders and play is a common technique of learning to all primates.
Play provides practice for physical skills
necessary or useful in adulthood. For example, young monkeys racing through the
trees at top speed are gaining coordination that may save their lives if they
are chased by predators later on.
Play is also a way of learning social skills,
particularly in interacting and communicating with other members of the group.
- Primates have flat nails instead of claws.
This structure allows them to hold or manipulate objects more easily.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMATES
As we have seen in the preamble, the order primates is often divided
into two sub-orders: the prosmians and
the anthropoids.
PROSMIANS
The prosmians resemble other mammals more than the anthropoids do. They
depend much more on smell for information than the anthropoids. They have
longer snout and relatively fixed expression. They typically have more mobile
ears.
The prosmians exhibit many traits shared by all primates, including
grasping hands, stereoscopic vision, and so on.
The prosmian primates include lemur,
lorises, and tarsias.
Lemur – are found on two Islands of Madagascar and
Comoro.
Ø
Member of
lemur group usually produce single offspring although twins and even triplets
are common on some species.
Ø
Many of
the species of this group are quadrupeds
Ø
Many
species are nocturnal
Ø
Living in
the group ranging from a small family to as many as 60 members
Ø
They have
unusual features i.e. females often dominate male particularly over access to
food. In most primates, and in most other mammals, female dominance is rarely
observed.
LORISES - These are found in Southeast Asia and
Sub-Saharan Africa
Ø
They are
nocturnal
Ø
Arboreal
Ø
They eat
fruits, tree gam and insects
Ø
Give birth
to single infants
TARSIERS – Found in the Islands of the Philipines and Indonesia
Ø
They are nocturnal
Ø
Arboreal
Ø
Insect-eaters,
sometime capture and eat small mammals
ANTHROPOIDS
The anthropoid sub-order includes humans, apes, and monkeys. Many
anthropoids share several traits in varying degree.
Ø
They have
highly efficient reproductive systems, including placenta that is formed more
fully than in any prosmians.
Ø
They have
non-mobile and reduced ear
Ø
They also
have highly skillful hands
The anthropoid order is divided into two main groups;
- Platyrrhines (New world monkeys)
- catyrrhines (Old world monkeys).
These groups take their names from the nose shape of the different
anthropoids.
Ø
New world
monkeys have broad, flat – bridged noses, with nostrils facing outwards. These
monkeys are found in the Central and South America. Good examples are Marmosets
and tamarins.
Ø
Old world
monkeys have narrow noses with nostril facing downwards (like man). Good
examples are chimpanzees, gorillas, gibbons, baboons, Orangutan and hominid
(humans).
Features
distinguishing the New world monkeys and Old world monkeys
Beside the shape of the nose and the position
of the nostrils, other anatomical features distinguishing the New world monkeys
from the Old world monkeys are as follows;
Ø
New world
monkeys have three premolars whereas
Old world monkeys have two.
Ø
Some New
world monkeys have a prehensile
(grasping) tail. It is used as
the third hand to grab things and also give the balance when they climb
branches of trees, whereas no Old world monkeys do.
Ø
All the
New world monkeys are completely arboreal
(live in trees) whereas some of the old world monkeys live both in trees and on the ground. Some Old world monkeys such
as baboon are completely terrestrial
(live on the ground).
Ø
Males of
the new world monkeys involve themselves on the parenting of the infant. Most
of the time the male will carry the infant on its back and return it to its
mother for nursing. WHILE the old world monkeys male never get involve with the
caring on the infant, is only done by female monkeys.
DISTINCTIVE HUMAN TRAITS
The following are the features that distinguish humans from other
primates.
- Bipadal locomotion. Of all the primates,
only humans consistently walk upright on two feet. Gibbons, Chimpanzees,
and gorillas and some few monkeys too, may stand or walk on two feet some
of the time, but for a very short priods.
- The human jaw is shaped like a parabolic
arch, rather than a U-shape as in apes.
- Human teeth reflect our completely
omnivorous diet and are not very specialized. This reflects the fact that
we use tools and cooking to prepare our food. Many lower primates have
long lower canines which are accommodated by space in the upper jaw.
- Language. Only humans have spoken symbolic
language. Other primates have their own ways of communicating too.
Ø
Chimpanzees
are also communicative, using gestures and many vocalizations in the wild.
- Toolmaking. Humans have always been
considered the only toolmaking animal. They make and use tools in a more
advanced manner.
Sometimes this observation calls for some
modification of the definition of toolmaking because some of the great apes
made and used tools too.
Evidence
shows that, Chimpanzees used tools made from wood; however, none of these tools
exists in the archaeological record.
- Humans are one of the few primates that
are completely terrestrial. We do not even sleep in trees as many other
ground living primates do.
- Divission of labour by gender in food
getting and food sharing in adulthood. Among nonhuman primates, both
females and males hunt for themselves after infancy.
APE –
LIKE HUMANS
It is very clear that by about 4 m.y ago we
have fossils remains of human looking creatures referred to as ape-man or
proto-humans.
The first fossil was discovered in 1924 at
Taung cave in South Africa by Raymond Dart who assumed that despite its
ape-like characteristics, anatomically the specimen had human like features
which placed it in the human lineage.
After close analysis of the finds, Dart
concluded that, the fossil remains belonged to a child of between 5 – 7 year
old. He finally named the specimen Australopithecus africanus which
means “southern ape of Africa”. Its
brain size is between 428 – 485 cc
Dart’s conclusion met with serious skepticism
and opposition from other scientists because they believed that hominids had
originated in Asia.
Probably there were other reasons;
Dart had found only one fossil and it was an
infant rather than adult; and no other hominid fossil had yet been found in
Africa.
After a long opposition and debate from other
scientists, the findings were accepted.
Later on, other fossil were found in several
caves in South Africa – Makapansagat, Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and Kromdrai.
These hominid remains probably date to between 3.8 – 1 m.y ago and they belong
to two species namely, australipithecus africanus and Australopithecus robustus.
Although these discoveries in South Africa were important in defining the
australopithecine generic group, they were not chronometrically dated.
Therefore, the first discovery of
Australopithecus to be absolutely dated was that of Dr. Mary Leakey in 1959
when she discovered fossil remains at Olduvai Gorge which she named Zinjanthropus.
The fossils included a skull
with teeth fragment.
After careful analysis of the fossil remains it was revealed that, the remains
were that of a male. Because of its huge mandible and teeth it was nicknamed Nutcracker
Man. The skull was found in association of stone tools and animal bones and
was dated to 1.75 m.y ago. Zinjanthropus was later called Australopithecus
boise.
Besides Olduvai
Gorge, another site which produced fossil evidence of early
hominids include Laetoli site in Tanzania and Hardar
in Ethiopia.
Laetoli site was
investigated in the late 1930's by Louis and Mary Leakey, but no fossil
hominins were found at that time. Mary Leakey returned to Laetoli with Tim
White, an American paleoanthropologist in 1978.
This time bone
remains of what were likely Australopithecus afarensis dating between
3.7 - 3.5 million years ago were discovered. The remains consisted of large
number of teeth and jaws. Interestingly, foot prints of bipedal hominids
(presumably afarensis) were also
discovered on the volcanic ash layer at Laetoli site.
The footprints
look almost like those of modern humans. It was then revealed that these
are all traits of humans but not of apes. Based on the characteristics of
the footprints, Mary Leakey concluded that their makers were adults and a
child, and the two hominids walked
bipedal.
In Ethiopia, the
remains of at least 35 individuals have been found at the site of Hardar. The
Hadar finds were relatively complete. For example, paleoanthropologists found
40% of the skeleton of a female hominid and named it Lucy.
An analysis of Lucy’s remains
indicates clearly that she was a bipedal walker, however, she probably also
climbed a lot in the trees when judged by her leg bones and joints. Lucy
probably lived there around 2.9 million years ago.
In Kenya we have
fossil remains of what is called Australopithecus anamensis. This was
discovered east of Lake Turkana, dating back to 4.2 million years ago.
In general
Paleoanthropologists divide the genus Australopithecus into at least four
species;
- Australopithecus
anamensis
- Australopithecus
afarensis
- Australopithecus
africanus
- Australopithecus
robustus
- Australopithecus
boisei
RELATIONSHIP OF EARLY
HOMINID FOSSILS
According to available evidence,
Africa has produced the earliest evidence of human origin though the debate
continues. There is a debate on how to describe and define the genera and
species represented by the fossils, as well as debate on which scheme would
best describe the relationship among the identified genera and species. For
example, among the Australopithecines, which species evolved to Homo and which
is ancestral to other species. See the different schemes…
EARLY HUMANS
These are hominids with large brain size than
that of Australopithecines. These hominids began to appear 2.5 million years
ago. Because of their relatively large brain size and most of their anatomical
characteristics pointing towards modern humans, they were classified in our own
genus, Homo.
In the Homo generic there are at least three
species;
- Homo habilis
- Homo erectus
- Homo sapiens
Homo habilis (Hand man); the first Homo habilis
remains were found at Olduvai in Tanzania. The remains consisted of several teeth
and lower
jaw associated with fragments of a cranium. These fossils were
discovered by Louis Leakey, Philip Tobias, and John Napia in 1960. It has been
argued that, Homo habilis lived in the same place and time by Australopithecus
boisei which was also found in Olduvai Gorge.
The remains of Homo habilis have also been
discovered from eastern area of Lake Turkana in Kenya, the Omo basin of
Ethiopia, and South African caves.
Characteristics of Homo habilis
- Homo habilis had a significant large brain
size, averaging 630 – 640 cc.
- Homo habilis had a reduced molars and
premolars.
- Homo habilis had a short body with
disproportionately long arms when compared to modern humans.
- They also had relatively massive brow
ridges
- Homo habilis had flexible thumb and precision
grip which provided the anatomical basis for tool making.
Many stone tools have been found at various
sites in East Africa around the time of Homo habilis. WHO MADE THESE TOOLS?? Some anthropologists assume that these tools
were made by Homo habilis and not Australopithecines. The inference was made
from the large brain capacity of the species as well as the precision grip of
the hands and the flexibility of a thumb which provide the specie with tool
making ability. However, the fact is that none of the earliest stone tools are
clearly associated with Homo habilis fossils.
HOMO
ERECTUS
Homo erectus appeared to have evolved in Africa
about 1.6 million year ago. It is probably that they have evolved from earlier
Homo habilis populations. We know from many finds that Homo erectus was the
first hominid species to be widely distributed in the Old World because fossil
remains of this specie have been discovered there (i.e Africa, Asia and
Europe).
The earliest fossils of Homo erectus come from
East Turkana in Kenya, where the skull dated back to 1.6 and 1.5 million years
ago was recovered (Fagan 1993: 74-76). On the other hand, a nearly complete
Homo erectus skeleton of 12 years old boy was found in the western part of Lake
Turkana.
Apart from the fossils from Lake Turkana region
of Kenya, Louis Leakey discovered incomplete cranium of Homo erectus at Oduvai
Gorge in Northern Tanzania in the year 1960.
The remains of Homo habilis have also been
discovered from Trinil area of Java and Zhoukoudian cave in Asia.
Characteristics of Homo erectus
- Homo erectus had larger
brain size over Homo habilis ranging between 945 and 1,040 cc
- H. erectus nasal aperture projected forward,
suggesting the first appearance of the typical human external nose with
the nostril facing downward.
- Pronounced brow ridges are present above the
orbits.
- The first hominid to radiate and expand moving
out of Africa and colonize other parts of the Old World (Asia and Europe).
They moved out of Africa around 1 million years ago.
- The cranial bone of Homo erectus was thicker than
in earlier hominids.
- The postcranial skeleton is similar to that of
modern man but it’s robust and was clearly heavily muscled.
- Homo erectus was an accomplished tool maker and tool user.
Apparently, Homo erectus was the tool makers of the Acheulian Industrial
Complex. Acheulian tools are found in various sites in the Old World.
- Homo erectus was the first hominid to control and
use fire. Because this species was the first to be found throughout the
Old World and in areas with freezing winter, most anthropologists presume
that Homo erectus learned to control fire, at least for warmth. Suggestive
but not conclusive evidences of the deliberate use of fire come from Kenya
in East Africa. More persuasive evidence of human control of fire dating
from nearly 500,000 years ago comes from the cave at Zhoukoudian in Chine
where H. erectus fossils have been found.
9. Homo erectus also engaged in wild-game hunting
as a means of subsistence. Although the issue is still debatable among
paleoanthropologists, some other scholars including archaeologists contends
that hunting is an ancient human subsistence strategy going back hundreds of
thousands of years, perhaps even a million years to the time of Homo erectus.
This means that Homo erectus was probably the first human to live in
hunter-gatherer society. They lived in groups and there is a possibility that
they had cooperation when it comes to the question of hunting. That is to say,
they organized themselves in hunting bands the characteristic which is similar
to modern hunter-gatherer band societies. They probably hunted big-games
including elephants, bison and rhinos.
Homo erectus was actually one of the most
successful early species of our genus and was probably the first Homo species
to migrate out of Africa.
Homo sapience
MODERN HUMANS
We
have seen that, at last 3 species belonging to the Homo generic group have been
identified. BESIDE
1. Homo habilis dating to 2.5-1.5 m.y.a
2. Homo erectus dating to 1.5-400,000 years ago.
3. Homo sapiens dating to 400,000.
To date there is a debate as to whether the
fossil remains assigned to Homo erectus found in Africa are the same as those
found in Asia and Europe.
Some physical anthropologists and
paleontologists argues that the Africa remains are very different from those of
Asia, and new specie should be created for the Africa remains.
The name of this new species has suggested be Homo
ergaster.
This debate came up when scholars wanted to
know which species of Homo evolved into Homo sapiens.
Some scientists believed that the new species
of Homo erectus (Homo ergaster) eventually evolved into Homo sapies.
Therefore, evidence shows that, Homo sapies
emerged in Africa and eventually populated to other parts of the world.
Fossil evidence in Africa indicates that between
400,000-200,000 years ago, early man anatomically different from Homo erectus
and resembling Homo sapiens were already inhabited different parts of Africa.
These fossils have been assigned to Archaic
Homo sapiens and have been recovered from Ndutu (Tanzania), Bodo (Ethiopia)
Sale (Morocco) and Saldanha (South Africa).
These fossils, however, hardly appeared
completely modern with an average brain size of 1200cc; their crania retain the
so called primitive characteristics, although with some changes over those of
Homo erectus.
Fossil remains recovered from Ngaloba beds in
Laetoli Tanzania and dated back to 120,000 years ago and Florisbad in South
Africa dated to between 200,000-100,000 years ago are either belong to this Archaic
Homo sapiens or are representatives of early Homo sapiens.
NB. Other hominids remains of this period were
discovered in Omo I and II from Omo basin Ethiopia and other sites in Kenya and
Morocco.
Other fossils were discovered in German
specifically at the Neander Valley. The species was named Homo Neandertal and
later due to its physical characteristics like;
1450 cc brain size, sloping forehead, the
receding chin, and bones which were most robust and muscle marking than modern
humans, they were regarded as Archaic Homo sapiens.
It is possible that these early or Archaic Homo
sapiens evolved into anatomically modern man.
By the period between 200,000-100,000 years ago
we have fossil remains which belong to anatomically modern man (Homo sapiens
sapiens). The fossils were discovered in the Klasies River Mouth Cave and
Border Cave in South Africa.
THE
EMERGENCE OF MODERN HUMANS
It is
now well established that modern looking humans appeared earlier outside of
Europe.
As for now the oldest fossils classified as
Homo sapiens sapiens come from Africa.
Remains of anatomically modern humans have also
been discovered in Israel and Australia.
These modern looking humans differed from the
Neandertals and other early Homo sapiens in that they had thinner and lighter
bones, smaller faces and jaws, protruding chin and well reduced brow ridges.
THEORIES
ABOUT THE ORIGINS OF MODERN HUMANS
There are two theories explain the origins of
modern humans. The two theories continue to be debated among anthropologists.
1. Single origin theory
2. Multiregional theory
Single origin theory
The theory suggests that modern human emerged
in one part of the Old World and then spread to other parts, such as Near East,
Europe then Asia replacing Neandertals and other pre-modern Homo sapiens.
The theory postulates that Africa is generally
thought to be the place of modern human’s origin. According to the single
origin theory, most of the Neandertals and other pre-modern Homo sapiens did
not evolve into modern humans. This is because Neandertals become extinct after
35,000 years ago because they were replaced by modern humans.
Multiregional theory
The theory suggests that modern humans evolved
in various parts of the world after Homo erectus spread out of Africa.
The theory proposes that Homo erectus population
in various parts of the Old World gradually evolved into anatomically modern
looking humans.
Supporters of this theory view believe that the
transitional or Archaic Homo sapiens and the Neandertals and other definite
Homo sapiens represent phases in the gradual development of more modern
anatomical features.
BASIC
CULTURAL EVOLUTION
OLDOWAN
INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX
The Oldowan is the archaeological term used to
refer to the stone tool industry that was used by early hominids. The term
Oldowan was first named and described by Louis and Marry Leakey at the site of
Olduvai Gorge where the first Oldowan tools were discovered. The Oldowan
Industrial Complex date back to 1.8 – 1.5 million years ago.
The available evidence shows that, Oldowan
tools were the earliest stone tools in human history which marked the beginning
of the archaeological record of stone tools.
It is now well established that the first
specie of the genus Homo (Homo habilis) were the tool makers of this Industrial
complex.
These tools were apparently made by striking a
stone with another stone, a technique called PERCUSSION FLAKING. Both the
sharp-edged flakes and the sharp-edged cores were used as tools. Sometimes this is regarded as core technology since flakes
were removed from the core.
RAW MATERIALS USED IN TOOL MAKING include;
Quartz, Quartzite, basalt, chert and so on…………………….
In terms of typology, the Oldowan Industrial
tradition is composed of the following tool types
(i)
Choppers –
These are stone tools that have been partially flaked and have a side that
might have been used for chopping. It might be unifacial or bifacial worked.
(ii)
Polyhedrons
– regular block with three or more working edges.
(iii)
Spheroids
– Smoothly rounded over the whole exterior.
(iv)
Proto-bifaces
– Intermediate between a true bifaces i.e. worked or flaked over on both
surface.
(v)
Discoids –
Irregular flaked around the edge
(vi)
Scrapers –
both heavy and light duty. The heavy duty scrapers are made on cores which are
trimmed on one or more sides. Light duty scrapers are made out of flakes or
flake fragment.
(vii)
Modified
and Utilized pieces – e,g utilized flakes and flake fragment, anvils and
hammerstones.
(viii)
Manuports
– These are stone blocks which have been brought to the site probably for tool
making but were not used.
Archaeological evidence recovered from various
layers of Olduvai where excavation have been carefully carried out revealed a
series of stratified concentration of stone tools and animal bones. From this
point of view, Dr. Mary Leakey has recognized several stages or phases in the
development of the Oldowan Industrial tradition in the period 1.8 million years
ago to 700,000 years ago.
She has named the development stages as;
1. The early Oldowan – This is found in Bed 1
dating to approximately 1.8 m.y.a to 1.7 million years ago. Choppers are the
predominant tool type representing 40 – 70% of the tools. Polyhedrons are
present but not many; spheroids are very rare in this phase. Light duty tools
especially scrapers are present. The KBS Industry of Kobi Fora belongs to this
stage.
2. Developed Oldowan A – Is found in lower Bed II
dating approximately to between 1.7 – 1.5 million years ago. The tools of Early
Oldowan continue but spheroids become more common. There is more variety of
light duty tools which include scrapers and so on. Proto-bifaces appear for the
first time. The Karari Industry of Kobi Fora belongs to this stage.
3. Developed Oldowan B – Is found in Upper Bed II
and dating to approximately between 1.5 – 1 million years ago. Tool types of
the Developed Oldowan A continue but bifaces and hand axes are found.
4. Developed Oldowan C is found in Bed IV. This
date back to 700,000 years ago. Though Oldowan tools types continue, bifaces –
hand axes and cleavers are important tool types in this assemblage.
ACHEULIAN INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX
The Acheulian Industrial complex is the second
earliest tool working tradition which dates from about 1.5 million years ago
and continues to about 200,000 years ago.
The term Archeulian was first used by 19th
century French archaeologist Gabriel de Mortillet to refer to the remnants of a
prehistoric industrial culture found near the town of St. Acheul in northern
France. In this site an abundance of hand axes and other stone tools which were
more sophisticated than those found at Olduvai site were discovered.
The tool marker of this Industrial tradition
was Homo erectus or Homo ergaster.
Contrast to Oldowan which is confined in
Africa, Acheulian is more widespread across the Old World. This is due to the
movement out of Africa of Homo erectus.
Technology, the Acheulian differ from Oldowan
in two ways.
- The ability of Acheulian tool maker to
remove large flakes from the cores. The flakes are either removed from
side (side struck) or end (end struck) of the core.
- The bifacial working of some of the tools
which resulted in the appearance of new tool classes known as bifaces.
These are tools worked on both sides which
include hand axes, clevers and picks.
The making of these tools indicates better
competence in tool making and better control of materials. This also indicates
the adaptation to new situation, new tasks and exploitation of new resources.
Typologically, the Acheulian differ from the
Oldwan by,
- The appearance of new tool types such as
hand axes.
- More diversified flake – tool component
both in terms of increase in number of tool types e.g. more classes of
scrapers appear.
In general there is continuity or similarities
between the Acheulian and Oldowan. For example, most of the tool types of
Oldowan are found in Acheulian, but they are better made (more modified).
TOOL KIT.
The main tool types of the Acheulian Industrial
complex have been categorized as follows,
- Large cutting tools- these include bifaces
hand axes, cleavers and pick like hand axes and knives.
- Heavy duty tools- picks, choppers,
polyhedrons, spheroids and core scrapers.
- Light duty tools- Scrapers of different
types like end and side scrapers, burins, awls, nosed and printed pieces.
- Modified and utilized pieces including
cores, flakes, and flake fragments, and hammer stones etc.
- Manu ports
- Tool manufacture waste – debitage i.e.
different types of cores, flakes and flake fragments.
As a matter of fact the Acheulian Industry
co-existed with the Developed Oldowan A, B and C in Oldvai George until after
700,000 years ago.
Therefore the Acheulian which continues up to
200,000 years ago has been divided into two developmental stages or phases.
- Early Acheulian dating to between 1.5 -
700,000. This phase indicated an increase in the complex of tools in term
of classes within types eg. More varieties of hand axes.
Major sites are Oldivai upper Bed 11, Peninj in
Lake Natron in Tanzania, Ain Henech in Tunisia and South African caves like
Makapasangat.
- Late Acheulian – dating between 700,000-
200,000 years ago.
The phase showed more improvement in the competence
in tool manufacturing and better mastery of raw materials. The phase exhibit
better made and more refined tools.
Major sites include Olduvai – Bed IV, Ismila
and Nyabusora in Tanzania, Kalambo falls and Broken Hills in Zambia and so on.
MIDDLE
STONE AGE (MSA)
The Middle Stone Age began around 200,000 and
continued to 30, 000 years ago.
Middle Stone Age tools include a range of
retouched flake tools especially side scrapers, back knives and points.
The technology used to make these tools is
known as LEVALLOIS METHOD i.e. Tools were shaped from prepared cores. In this
Levalloisian technology, predetermined and standard size flakes could then be
knocked off.
Tool maker of this period were Archaic Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens. Experts believe that
these tools were used for; work animal
hides and to shape wood implements.
It is also called the Mousterian tradition or
Middle Paleolithic in Europe and Near East.
LATE
STONE AGE (LSA)
Started around 30,000 to about 500 years ago.
There are more standardized tools than previous times. LSA is usually
characterized by specially prepared cores from which blades were removed
through indirect percussion. There
were also new forms of scrapers, backed knives, burins and points.
Indirect
percussion – you put a punch of either wood or another hard material into
position and strike it with a hammer stone to get blades of standard size removed.
LSA is called Upper Paleolithic in Europe.
During this time period tools of bones, antler and Ivory became common for the
first time. These include points, harpoons, and needles and so on. By this
time, people were still mainly hunters and gatherers and fishers. They probably
lived in highly mobile bands.
NEOLITHIC
AND DOMESTICATION
Neolithic refers to as the transition of human
culture from hunting and gathering lifestyle to agriculture and permanent
settlement. In this type of culture, people began to produce food rather than
merely collect it. Archaeologically, this period is usually called the period
of food production/Neolithic revolution.
The rise of
Neolithic agriculture is unquestionably one of the most important events in
human cultural history.
Agriculture, or food
production as archaeologists call it, appeared in and spread from many
different regions of the world between 10,000 and 5000 years ago.
From the appearance
of the human race, some 7 million years ago until the introduction of
agriculture, hunting and gathering was the only food procurement strategy
practiced.
Therefore this
pre-historic shift to food production led to the rise of civilization and the
procurement of material wealth beyond the wildest dreams of the hunter and
gatherer communities in various parts of the world.
This decisive change
or turning point was characterized by the use of polished stone implements, development of permanent dwellings, pottery making, and domestication of animals and cultivation of grains. Actually all these characteristics are not
always present in a given Neolithic culture.
The
domestication of plants and animals in the Old World
The earliest
Neolithic centers are found in the Middle East, a region that today includes
Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq, as well as Egypt,
Sudan, and the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. Several varieties of
domesticated wheat were being grown there after about 8000 B.C. Barley, peas
and various fruits and nuts are also said to have been cultivated in the Middle
East by this time.
It is now well
established that, the first animals were domesticated in the Near East. Dogs
were first domesticated before the rise of agriculture around 10000 B.C. Goats
and sheep around 7000 B.C., and cattle and pigs around 6000 B.C. Archaeological
evidence comes from the two important early Neolithic sites of ALI KOSH and
CATAL HUYUK.
Ø Evidence of agriculture and herding were found
at Ali Kosh site. Wheat and a kind of barley and a huge number of bones from domesticated goats were unearthed at Ali Koshi site. Most of the collected
bones were from young goats. This indicates that, the adult goats were saved
for breeding purposes and while young were meant for consumption.
Ø After 5500 B.C we see the appearance of two
important innovations i.e. irrigation
and use of domesticated cattle in
agriculture.
Ø Small rooms (7 by 10 feet) were excavated at
Ali Kosh. Archaeologists were wondering whether people actually spent time or
slept in there. They argued that they may have been storage rooms.
Ø At Catal Huyuk site, 200 houses have been
excavated (evidence of permanent settlement). Farming was well advanced at
Catal Huyuk in the sense that wheat, barley and peas were grown in quantity
that produced a surplus.
Domestication
Elsewhere in the World
The earliest clear
evidence of cereal cultivation outside the Near East is from Asia (North China)
where millet was first cultivated. Storage pits, storage pots, and large
numbers of grinding stones suggest that millet was very important item in the
diet in this part of Asia.
By this time we have
evidence of pig domestication, however, people also depended on hunting and
fishing.
Root crops such as taro
and yams, and tree crops such
as coconuts and bananas were domesticated first in Southeast Asia.
Thousands of miles
away in Mexco, beans and corn were two of the first crops cultivated. Over
time, farmers improved crop production with better tools and techniques.
With the invention
of the plow, about 6000 B.C., farmers were able to loosen the soil to help
crops grow more easily. Unlike nomads, Neolithic farmers could settle in
permanent locations and produce a steady food supply for a growing population.
By about 5500 B.C
people had began to dig simple irrigation systems which gave them more abundant
crops. At times, they even produced a surplus that could be stored or traded.
These prehistoric farmers had gained greater control over their environment
than any people before them.
Theories about Development of Food Production
Why did the hunting and gathering communities
adapt to the food production instead of continuing with the hunting and
gathering mode of life? What factors triggered such a major pre-historical
shift?
We all know that food production economies are
more efficient and developed than the hunting and gathering mode of life.
But it is at the same time regarded as the more
risky and demanding mode of life than hunting and gathering as it require more
investment in labor for clearance, maintenance of storage facilities.
Sometimes famine might occur when the crops
failed or when domesticated animals died because of drought.
Now why this major shift?
Many theories or hypotheses have been advanced
to explain such a major pre-historic change.
Environmental
change and stress
It has been argued that, during the end of
Pleistocene there were major changes in the environment with the areas settled
by hunting and gathering communities becoming dry and the animal and plant
resources being concentrated in favoured with enough water supply such as
oases, lakes and river valleys. The hunting and gathering communities were
therefore forced to these areas and this resulted into symbiotic relationship
between humans, animals and plant resources. Finally they domesticated some of
the favoured and exploited animal and plant resources.
This hypothesis is usually called OASIS HYPOTHESIS. It was expounded by
Gordon Childe.
The second hypothesis is linked to the above
one. i.e. Demographic stress is yet
another theory
It was advocated by Lewis Binford. He argued
that at the end of the Pleistocene some of the existing hunting and gathering
communities were forced to abandon the coasts due to the rise in sea levels and
settled in less populated areas. These movements led to demographic stress in
the areas where plant and animal resources were found. Consequently plant and
animal resources available in the occupied area could not sustain the growing
number of people. Therefore as resources got reduced, people started to
domesticate them for their survival.
One of the earliest hypothesis and probably
based on man´s ability for innovation and change was that of a solitary genius
who had the brilliant idea of planting some of the plants which were already
being processed by the hunting and gathering communities. The invention of this
genius were then accepted by the society and spread to other areas, once the
advantages of it were appreciated by the people.
N:B – Since it is now clear that food
production economies developed independently in many parts of the world, the
search for one hypothesis or model to explain such development is no longer attainable.
Consequently, reasons for the development of food production can rather be
explained independently from each Neolithic site.
