Basics of Human evolution in Archaelogy

BASICS OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

Primates

Primates are members of the mammalian order primates, divided into the two suborders of prosmians (Lower Primates) and anthropoids (Higher Primates).

Today we will first examine the common features of the living primate, then this will be followed by the introduction of different animals that belong to the order primate (classification of primates).

COMMON PRIMATES TRAITS

All primates belong to the class Mammalia, and they share all common features of mammals.

1. The bodies of primates are covered with dense hair which provides insulation. Even humans have hair in various places, though perhaps not always for insulation.
2. Primates generally are omnivorous; that is, they eat all kinds of food, including insects and small animals, as well as fruit, seeds, leaves and roots.
3. Most primates have opposable thumb a feature that allows an even more precise and powerful grip and climbing.
4. Primates are characterized by stereoscopic vision (allow depth perception). Their eyes are directed forward purposely to allow them to focus on insects or other food or a distant branch with both eyes at once.

5. Most primates also have color vision, perhaps to recognize when plant foods (mainly fruits) are ready to eat. As a matter of fact, vision is extremely important to primate life.
6. Primates’ reproductive system sets this order of animals apart from other mammals. Males of most primate species have a pendulous penis that is not attached to the abdomen by skin. On the other hand, most of female primate species have two nipples on the chest.
7. Primates give birth to live young that develop to a considerable size within the mother and are nourished by suckling from the mother’s mammary glands.

Young primates have a relatively long period of dependence on adults after birth. This period is also a time of learning from their elders and play is a common technique of learning to all primates.

Play provides practice for physical skills necessary or useful in adulthood. For example, young monkeys racing through the trees at top speed are gaining coordination that may save their lives if they are chased by predators later on.

Play is also a way of learning social skills, particularly in interacting and communicating with other members of the group.

8. Primates have flat nails instead of claws. This structure allows them to hold or manipulate objects more easily.

CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMATES

As we have seen in the preamble, the order primates is often divided into two sub-orders: the prosmians and the anthropoids.

PROSMIANS

The prosmians resemble other mammals more than the anthropoids do. They depend much more on smell for information than the anthropoids. They have longer snout and relatively fixed expression. They typically have more mobile ears.

The prosmians exhibit many traits shared by all primates, including grasping hands, stereoscopic vision, and so on.

The prosmian primates include lemur, lorises, and tarsias.

Lemur – are found on two Islands of Madagascar and Comoro.

Ø  Member of lemur group usually produce single offspring although twins and even triplets are common on some species.

Ø  Many of the species of this group are quadrupeds

Ø  Many species are nocturnal

Ø  Living in the group ranging from a small family to as many as 60 members

Ø  They have unusual features i.e. females often dominate male particularly over access to food. In most primates, and in most other mammals, female dominance is rarely observed.

LORISES - These are found in Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa

Ø  They are nocturnal

Ø  Arboreal

Ø  They eat fruits, tree gam and insects

Ø  Give birth to single infants

TARSIERS – Found in the Islands of the Philipines and Indonesia

Ø  They are nocturnal

Ø  Arboreal

Ø  Insect-eaters, sometime capture and eat small mammals

ANTHROPOIDS

The anthropoid sub-order includes humans, apes, and monkeys. Many anthropoids share several traits in varying degree.

Ø  They have highly efficient reproductive systems, including placenta that is formed more fully than in any prosmians.

Ø  They have non-mobile and reduced ear

Ø  They also have highly skillful hands

The anthropoid order is divided into two main groups;

1. Platyrrhines (New world monkeys) 
2. catyrrhines (Old world monkeys).

These groups take their names from the nose shape of the different anthropoids.

Ø  New world monkeys have broad, flat – bridged noses, with nostrils facing outwards. These monkeys are found in the Central and South America. Good examples are Marmosets and tamarins.

Ø  Old world monkeys have narrow noses with nostril facing downwards (like man). Good examples are chimpanzees, gorillas, gibbons, baboons, Orangutan and hominid (humans).

Features distinguishing the New world monkeys and Old world monkeys

Beside the shape of the nose and the position of the nostrils, other anatomical features distinguishing the New world monkeys from the Old world monkeys are as follows;

Ø  New world monkeys have three premolars whereas Old world monkeys have two.

Ø  Some New world monkeys have a prehensile (grasping) tail. It is used as the third hand to grab things and also give the balance when they climb branches of trees, whereas no Old world monkeys do.

Ø  All the New world monkeys are completely arboreal (live in trees) whereas some of the old world monkeys live both in trees and on the ground. Some Old world monkeys such as baboon are completely terrestrial (live on the ground).

Ø  Males of the new world monkeys involve themselves on the parenting of the infant. Most of the time the male will carry the infant on its back and return it to its mother for nursing. WHILE the old world monkeys male never get involve with the caring on the infant, is only done by female monkeys.

DISTINCTIVE HUMAN TRAITS

The following are the features that distinguish humans from other primates.

1. Bipadal locomotion. Of all the primates, only humans consistently walk upright on two feet. Gibbons, Chimpanzees, and gorillas and some few monkeys too, may stand or walk on two feet some of the time, but for a very short priods.
2. The human jaw is shaped like a parabolic arch, rather than a U-shape as in apes.
3. Human teeth reflect our completely omnivorous diet and are not very specialized. This reflects the fact that we use tools and cooking to prepare our food. Many lower primates have long lower canines which are accommodated by space in the upper jaw.
4. Language. Only humans have spoken symbolic language. Other primates have their own ways of communicating too.

Ø  Chimpanzees are also communicative, using gestures and many vocalizations in the wild.

5. Toolmaking. Humans have always been considered the only toolmaking animal. They make and use tools in a more advanced manner.

Sometimes this observation calls for some modification of the definition of toolmaking because some of the great apes made and used tools too.

Evidence shows that, Chimpanzees used tools made from wood; however, none of these tools exists in the archaeological record.

6. Humans are one of the few primates that are completely terrestrial. We do not even sleep in trees as many other ground living primates do.
7. Divission of labour by gender in food getting and food sharing in adulthood. Among nonhuman primates, both females and males hunt for themselves after infancy.

APE – LIKE HUMANS

It is very clear that by about 4 m.y ago we have fossils remains of human looking creatures referred to as ape-man or proto-humans.

The first fossil was discovered in 1924 at Taung cave in South Africa by Raymond Dart who assumed that despite its ape-like characteristics, anatomically the specimen had human like features which placed it in the human lineage.

After close analysis of the finds, Dart concluded that, the fossil remains belonged to a child of between 5 – 7 year old. He finally named the specimen Australopithecus africanus which means “southern ape of Africa”. Its brain size is between 428 – 485 cc

Dart’s conclusion met with serious skepticism and opposition from other scientists because they believed that hominids had originated in Asia.

Probably there were other reasons;

Dart had found only one fossil and it was an infant rather than adult; and no other hominid fossil had yet been found in Africa.

After a long opposition and debate from other scientists, the findings were accepted.

Later on, other fossil were found in several caves in South Africa – Makapansagat, Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and Kromdrai. These hominid remains probably date to between 3.8 – 1 m.y ago and they belong to two species namely, australipithecus africanus and Australopithecus robustus. Although these discoveries in South Africa were important in defining the australopithecine generic group, they were not chronometrically dated.

Therefore, the first discovery of Australopithecus to be absolutely dated was that of Dr. Mary Leakey in 1959 when she discovered fossil remains at Olduvai Gorge which she named Zinjanthropus.

The fossils included a skull with teeth fragment. After careful analysis of the fossil remains it was revealed that, the remains were that of a male. Because of its huge mandible and teeth it was nicknamed Nutcracker Man. The skull was found in association of stone tools and animal bones and was dated to 1.75 m.y ago. Zinjanthropus was later called Australopithecus boise.

Besides Olduvai Gorge, another site which produced fossil evidence of early hominids include Laetoli site in Tanzania and Hardar in Ethiopia.

Laetoli site was investigated in the late 1930's by Louis and Mary Leakey, but no fossil hominins were found at that time.  Mary Leakey returned to Laetoli with Tim White, an American paleoanthropologist in 1978. 

This time bone remains of what were likely Australopithecus afarensis dating between 3.7 - 3.5 million years ago were discovered. The remains consisted of large number of teeth and jaws. Interestingly, foot prints of bipedal hominids (presumably afarensis) were also discovered on the volcanic ash layer at Laetoli site. 

The footprints look almost like those of modern humans. It was then revealed that these are all traits of humans but not of apes.  Based on the characteristics of the footprints, Mary Leakey concluded that their makers were adults and a child, and the two hominids walked bipedal.

In Ethiopia, the remains of at least 35 individuals have been found at the site of Hardar. The Hadar finds were relatively complete. For example, paleoanthropologists found 40% of the skeleton of a female hominid and named it Lucy.

An analysis of Lucy’s remains indicates clearly that she was a bipedal walker, however, she probably also climbed a lot in the trees when judged by her leg bones and joints. Lucy probably lived there around 2.9 million years ago.

In Kenya we have fossil remains of what is called Australopithecus anamensis. This was discovered east of Lake Turkana, dating back to 4.2 million years ago.

In general Paleoanthropologists divide the genus Australopithecus into at least four species;

1. Australopithecus anamensis
2. Australopithecus afarensis
3. Australopithecus africanus
4. Australopithecus robustus
5. Australopithecus boisei

RELATIONSHIP OF EARLY HOMINID FOSSILS

According to available evidence, Africa has produced the earliest evidence of human origin though the debate continues. There is a debate on how to describe and define the genera and species represented by the fossils, as well as debate on which scheme would best describe the relationship among the identified genera and species. For example, among the Australopithecines, which species evolved to Homo and which is ancestral to other species. See the different schemes…

EARLY HUMANS

These are hominids with large brain size than that of Australopithecines. These hominids began to appear 2.5 million years ago. Because of their relatively large brain size and most of their anatomical characteristics pointing towards modern humans, they were classified in our own genus, Homo.

In the Homo generic there are at least three species;

1. Homo habilis
2. Homo erectus
3. Homo sapiens

Homo habilis (Hand man); the first Homo habilis remains were found at Olduvai in Tanzania. The remains consisted of several teeth and lower jaw associated with fragments of a cranium. These fossils were discovered by Louis Leakey, Philip Tobias, and John Napia in 1960. It has been argued that, Homo habilis lived in the same place and time by Australopithecus boisei which was also found in Olduvai Gorge.

The remains of Homo habilis have also been discovered from eastern area of Lake Turkana in Kenya, the Omo basin of Ethiopia, and South African caves.

Characteristics of Homo habilis

1. Homo habilis had a significant large brain size, averaging 630 – 640 cc.
2. Homo habilis had a reduced molars and premolars.
3. Homo habilis had a short body with disproportionately long arms when compared to modern humans.
4. They also had relatively massive brow ridges
5. Homo habilis had flexible thumb and precision grip which provided the anatomical basis for tool making.

Many stone tools have been found at various sites in East Africa around the time of Homo habilis. WHO MADE THESE TOOLS?? Some anthropologists assume that these tools were made by Homo habilis and not Australopithecines. The inference was made from the large brain capacity of the species as well as the precision grip of the hands and the flexibility of a thumb which provide the specie with tool making ability. However, the fact is that none of the earliest stone tools are clearly associated with Homo habilis fossils.

HOMO ERECTUS

Homo erectus appeared to have evolved in Africa about 1.6 million year ago. It is probably that they have evolved from earlier Homo habilis populations. We know from many finds that Homo erectus was the first hominid species to be widely distributed in the Old World because fossil remains of this specie have been discovered there (i.e Africa, Asia and Europe).

The earliest fossils of Homo erectus come from East Turkana in Kenya, where the skull dated back to 1.6 and 1.5 million years ago was recovered (Fagan 1993: 74-76). On the other hand, a nearly complete Homo erectus skeleton of 12 years old boy was found in the western part of Lake Turkana.

Apart from the fossils from Lake Turkana region of Kenya, Louis Leakey discovered incomplete cranium of Homo erectus at Oduvai Gorge in Northern Tanzania in the year 1960.

The remains of Homo habilis have also been discovered from Trinil area of Java and Zhoukoudian cave in Asia.

Characteristics of Homo erectus

1. Homo erectus had larger brain size over Homo habilis ranging between 945 and 1,040 cc
2. H. erectus nasal aperture projected forward, suggesting the first appearance of the typical human external nose with the nostril facing downward.
3. Pronounced brow ridges are present above the orbits.
4. The first hominid to radiate and expand moving out of Africa and colonize other parts of the Old World (Asia and Europe). They moved out of Africa around 1 million years ago.
5. The cranial bone of Homo erectus was thicker than in earlier hominids.
6. The postcranial skeleton is similar to that of modern man but it’s robust and was clearly heavily muscled.
7. Homo erectus was an accomplished tool maker and tool user. Apparently, Homo erectus was the tool makers of the Acheulian Industrial Complex. Acheulian tools are found in various sites in the Old World.
8. Homo erectus was the first hominid to control and use fire. Because this species was the first to be found throughout the Old World and in areas with freezing winter, most anthropologists presume that Homo erectus learned to control fire, at least for warmth. Suggestive but not conclusive evidences of the deliberate use of fire come from Kenya in East Africa. More persuasive evidence of human control of fire dating from nearly 500,000 years ago comes from the cave at Zhoukoudian in Chine where H. erectus fossils have been found.

9.      Homo erectus also engaged in wild-game hunting as a means of subsistence. Although the issue is still debatable among paleoanthropologists, some other scholars including archaeologists contends that hunting is an ancient human subsistence strategy going back hundreds of thousands of years, perhaps even a million years to the time of Homo erectus. This means that Homo erectus was probably the first human to live in hunter-gatherer society. They lived in groups and there is a possibility that they had cooperation when it comes to the question of hunting. That is to say, they organized themselves in hunting bands the characteristic which is similar to modern hunter-gatherer band societies. They probably hunted big-games including elephants, bison and rhinos.

Homo erectus was actually one of the most successful early species of our genus and was probably the first Homo species to migrate out of Africa.

Homo sapience

MODERN HUMANS

We have seen that, at last 3 species belonging to the Homo generic group have been identified. BESIDE

1.      Homo habilis dating to 2.5-1.5 m.y.a

2.      Homo erectus dating to 1.5-400,000 years ago.

3.      Homo sapiens dating to 400,000.

To date there is a debate as to whether the fossil remains assigned to Homo erectus found in Africa are the same as those found in Asia and Europe.

Some physical anthropologists and paleontologists argues that the Africa remains are very different from those of Asia, and new specie should be created for the Africa remains.

The name of this new species has suggested be Homo ergaster.

This debate came up when scholars wanted to know which species of Homo evolved into Homo sapiens.

Some scientists believed that the new species of Homo erectus (Homo ergaster) eventually evolved into Homo sapies.

Therefore, evidence shows that, Homo sapies emerged in Africa and eventually populated to other parts of the world.

Fossil evidence in Africa indicates that between 400,000-200,000 years ago, early man anatomically different from Homo erectus and resembling Homo sapiens were already inhabited different parts of Africa.

These fossils have been assigned to Archaic Homo sapiens and have been recovered from Ndutu (Tanzania), Bodo (Ethiopia) Sale (Morocco) and Saldanha (South Africa).

These fossils, however, hardly appeared completely modern with an average brain size of 1200cc; their crania retain the so called primitive characteristics, although with some changes over those of Homo erectus.

Fossil remains recovered from Ngaloba beds in Laetoli Tanzania and dated back to 120,000 years ago and Florisbad in South Africa dated to between 200,000-100,000 years ago are either belong to this Archaic Homo sapiens or are representatives of early Homo sapiens.

NB. Other hominids remains of this period were discovered in Omo I and II from Omo basin Ethiopia and other sites in Kenya and Morocco.

Other fossils were discovered in German specifically at the Neander Valley. The species was named Homo Neandertal and later due to its physical characteristics like;

1450 cc brain size, sloping forehead, the receding chin, and bones which were most robust and muscle marking than modern humans, they were regarded as Archaic Homo sapiens.

It is possible that these early or Archaic Homo sapiens evolved into anatomically modern man.

By the period between 200,000-100,000 years ago we have fossil remains which belong to anatomically modern man (Homo sapiens sapiens). The fossils were discovered in the Klasies River Mouth Cave and Border Cave in South Africa.

THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN HUMANS

 It is now well established that modern looking humans appeared earlier outside of Europe.

As for now the oldest fossils classified as Homo sapiens sapiens come from Africa.

Remains of anatomically modern humans have also been discovered in Israel and Australia.

These modern looking humans differed from the Neandertals and other early Homo sapiens in that they had thinner and lighter bones, smaller faces and jaws, protruding chin and well reduced brow ridges.

THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGINS OF MODERN HUMANS

There are two theories explain the origins of modern humans. The two theories continue to be debated among anthropologists.

1.      Single origin theory

2.      Multiregional theory

Single origin theory

The theory suggests that modern human emerged in one part of the Old World and then spread to other parts, such as Near East, Europe then Asia replacing Neandertals and other pre-modern Homo sapiens.

The theory postulates that Africa is generally thought to be the place of modern human’s origin. According to the single origin theory, most of the Neandertals and other pre-modern Homo sapiens did not evolve into modern humans. This is because Neandertals become extinct after 35,000 years ago because they were replaced by modern humans.

Multiregional theory

The theory suggests that modern humans evolved in various parts of the world after Homo erectus spread out of Africa.

The theory proposes that Homo erectus population in various parts of the Old World gradually evolved into anatomically modern looking humans.

Supporters of this theory view believe that the transitional or Archaic Homo sapiens and the Neandertals and other definite Homo sapiens represent phases in the gradual development of more modern anatomical features.

BASIC CULTURAL EVOLUTION

OLDOWAN INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX

The Oldowan is the archaeological term used to refer to the stone tool industry that was used by early hominids. The term Oldowan was first named and described by Louis and Marry Leakey at the site of Olduvai Gorge where the first Oldowan tools were discovered. The Oldowan Industrial Complex date back to 1.8 – 1.5 million years ago.

The available evidence shows that, Oldowan tools were the earliest stone tools in human history which marked the beginning of the archaeological record of stone tools.

It is now well established that the first specie of the genus Homo (Homo habilis) were the tool makers of this Industrial complex.

These tools were apparently made by striking a stone with another stone, a technique called PERCUSSION FLAKING. Both the sharp-edged flakes and the sharp-edged cores were used as tools. Sometimes this is regarded as core technology since flakes were removed from the core.

RAW MATERIALS USED IN TOOL MAKING include; Quartz, Quartzite, basalt, chert and so on…………………….

In terms of typology, the Oldowan Industrial tradition is composed of the following tool types

(i)                 Choppers – These are stone tools that have been partially flaked and have a side that might have been used for chopping. It might be unifacial or bifacial worked.

(ii)               Polyhedrons – regular block with three or more working edges.

(iii)             Spheroids – Smoothly rounded over the whole exterior.

(iv)             Proto-bifaces – Intermediate between a true bifaces i.e. worked or flaked over on both surface.

(v)               Discoids – Irregular flaked around the edge

(vi)             Scrapers – both heavy and light duty. The heavy duty scrapers are made on cores which are trimmed on one or more sides. Light duty scrapers are made out of flakes or flake fragment.

(vii)           Modified and Utilized pieces – e,g utilized flakes and flake fragment, anvils and hammerstones.

(viii)         Manuports – These are stone blocks which have been brought to the site probably for tool making but were not used.

Archaeological evidence recovered from various layers of Olduvai where excavation have been carefully carried out revealed a series of stratified concentration of stone tools and animal bones. From this point of view, Dr. Mary Leakey has recognized several stages or phases in the development of the Oldowan Industrial tradition in the period 1.8 million years ago to 700,000 years ago.

She has named the development stages as;

1.      The early Oldowan – This is found in Bed 1 dating to approximately 1.8 m.y.a to 1.7 million years ago. Choppers are the predominant tool type representing 40 – 70% of the tools. Polyhedrons are present but not many; spheroids are very rare in this phase. Light duty tools especially scrapers are present. The KBS Industry of Kobi Fora belongs to this stage.

2.      Developed Oldowan A – Is found in lower Bed II dating approximately to between 1.7 – 1.5 million years ago. The tools of Early Oldowan continue but spheroids become more common. There is more variety of light duty tools which include scrapers and so on. Proto-bifaces appear for the first time. The Karari Industry of Kobi Fora belongs to this stage.

3.      Developed Oldowan B – Is found in Upper Bed II and dating to approximately between 1.5 – 1 million years ago. Tool types of the Developed Oldowan A continue but bifaces and hand axes are found.

4.      Developed Oldowan C is found in Bed IV. This date back to 700,000 years ago. Though Oldowan tools types continue, bifaces – hand axes and cleavers are important tool types in this assemblage.

ACHEULIAN INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX

The Acheulian Industrial complex is the second earliest tool working tradition which dates from about 1.5 million years ago and continues to about 200,000 years ago.

The term Archeulian was first used by 19^th century French archaeologist Gabriel de Mortillet to refer to the remnants of a prehistoric industrial culture found near the town of St. Acheul in northern France. In this site an abundance of hand axes and other stone tools which were more sophisticated than those found at Olduvai site were discovered.

The tool marker of this Industrial tradition was Homo erectus or Homo ergaster.

Contrast to Oldowan which is confined in Africa, Acheulian is more widespread across the Old World. This is due to the movement out of Africa of Homo erectus.

Technology, the Acheulian differ from Oldowan in two ways.

1. The ability of Acheulian tool maker to remove large flakes from the cores. The flakes are either removed from side (side struck) or end (end struck) of the core.
2. The bifacial working of some of the tools which resulted in the appearance of new tool classes known as bifaces.

These are tools worked on both sides which include hand axes, clevers and picks.

The making of these tools indicates better competence in tool making and better control of materials. This also indicates the adaptation to new situation, new tasks and exploitation of new resources.

Typologically, the Acheulian differ from the Oldwan by,

1. The appearance of new tool types such as hand axes.
2. More diversified flake – tool component both in terms of increase in number of tool types e.g. more classes of scrapers appear.

In general there is continuity or similarities between the Acheulian and Oldowan. For example, most of the tool types of Oldowan are found in Acheulian, but they are better made (more modified).

TOOL KIT.

The main tool types of the Acheulian Industrial complex have been categorized as follows,

1. Large cutting tools- these include bifaces hand axes, cleavers and pick like hand axes and knives.
2. Heavy duty tools- picks, choppers, polyhedrons, spheroids and core scrapers.
3. Light duty tools- Scrapers of different types like end and side scrapers, burins, awls, nosed and printed pieces.
4. Modified and utilized pieces including cores, flakes, and flake fragments, and hammer stones etc.
5. Manu ports
6. Tool manufacture waste – debitage i.e. different types of cores, flakes and flake fragments.

As a matter of fact the Acheulian Industry co-existed with the Developed Oldowan A, B and C in Oldvai George until after 700,000 years ago.

Therefore the Acheulian which continues up to 200,000 years ago has been divided into two developmental stages or phases.

1. Early Acheulian dating to between 1.5 - 700,000. This phase indicated an increase in the complex of tools in term of classes within types eg. More varieties of hand axes.

Major sites are Oldivai upper Bed 11, Peninj in Lake Natron in Tanzania, Ain Henech in Tunisia and South African caves like Makapasangat.

2. Late Acheulian – dating between 700,000- 200,000 years ago.

The phase showed more improvement in the competence in tool manufacturing and better mastery of raw materials. The phase exhibit better made and more refined tools.

Major sites include Olduvai – Bed IV, Ismila and Nyabusora in Tanzania, Kalambo falls and Broken Hills in Zambia and so on.  

MIDDLE STONE AGE (MSA)

The Middle Stone Age began around 200,000 and continued to 30, 000 years ago.

Middle Stone Age tools include a range of retouched flake tools especially side scrapers, back knives and points.

The technology used to make these tools is known as LEVALLOIS METHOD i.e. Tools were shaped from prepared cores. In this Levalloisian technology, predetermined and standard size flakes could then be knocked off.

Tool maker of this period were Archaic Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens. Experts believe that these tools were used for; work animal hides and to shape wood implements.

It is also called the Mousterian tradition or Middle Paleolithic in Europe and Near East.

LATE STONE AGE (LSA)

Started around 30,000 to about 500 years ago. There are more standardized tools than previous times. LSA is usually characterized by specially prepared cores from which blades were removed through indirect percussion. There were also new forms of scrapers, backed knives, burins and points.

Indirect percussion – you put a punch of either wood or another hard material into position and strike it with a hammer stone to get blades of standard size removed.

LSA is called Upper Paleolithic in Europe. During this time period tools of bones, antler and Ivory became common for the first time. These include points, harpoons, and needles and so on. By this time, people were still mainly hunters and gatherers and fishers. They probably lived in highly mobile bands.

NEOLITHIC AND DOMESTICATION

Neolithic refers to as the transition of human culture from hunting and gathering lifestyle to agriculture and permanent settlement. In this type of culture, people began to produce food rather than merely collect it. Archaeologically, this period is usually called the period of food production/Neolithic revolution.

The rise of Neolithic agriculture is unquestionably one of the most important events in human cultural history.

Agriculture, or food production as archaeologists call it, appeared in and spread from many different regions of the world between 10,000 and 5000 years ago.

From the appearance of the human race, some 7 million years ago until the introduction of agriculture, hunting and gathering was the only food procurement strategy practiced.

Therefore this pre-historic shift to food production led to the rise of civilization and the procurement of material wealth beyond the wildest dreams of the hunter and gatherer communities in various parts of the world.

This decisive change or turning point was characterized by the use of polished stone implements, development of permanent dwellings, pottery making, and domestication of animals and cultivation of grains. Actually all these characteristics are not always present in a given Neolithic culture.

The domestication of plants and animals in the Old World

The earliest Neolithic centers are found in the Middle East, a region that today includes Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq, as well as Egypt, Sudan, and the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. Several varieties of domesticated wheat were being grown there after about 8000 B.C. Barley, peas and various fruits and nuts are also said to have been cultivated in the Middle East by this time.

It is now well established that, the first animals were domesticated in the Near East. Dogs were first domesticated before the rise of agriculture around 10000 B.C. Goats and sheep around 7000 B.C., and cattle and pigs around 6000 B.C. Archaeological evidence comes from the two important early Neolithic sites of ALI KOSH and CATAL HUYUK. 

Ø  Evidence of agriculture and herding were found at Ali Kosh site. Wheat and a kind of barley and a huge number of bones from domesticated goats were unearthed at Ali Koshi site. Most of the collected bones were from young goats. This indicates that, the adult goats were saved for breeding purposes and while young were meant for consumption.

Ø  After 5500 B.C we see the appearance of two important innovations i.e. irrigation and use of domesticated cattle in agriculture.

Ø  Small rooms (7 by 10 feet) were excavated at Ali Kosh. Archaeologists were wondering whether people actually spent time or slept in there. They argued that they may have been storage rooms.

Ø  At Catal Huyuk site, 200 houses have been excavated (evidence of permanent settlement). Farming was well advanced at Catal Huyuk in the sense that wheat, barley and peas were grown in quantity that produced a surplus.

Domestication Elsewhere in the World

The earliest clear evidence of cereal cultivation outside the Near East is from Asia (North China) where millet was first cultivated. Storage pits, storage pots, and large numbers of grinding stones suggest that millet was very important item in the diet in this part of Asia.

By this time we have evidence of pig domestication, however, people also depended on hunting and fishing.

Root crops such as taro and yams, and tree crops such as coconuts and bananas were domesticated first in Southeast Asia.

Thousands of miles away in Mexco, beans and corn were two of the first crops cultivated. Over time, farmers improved crop production with better tools and techniques.

With the invention of the plow, about 6000 B.C., farmers were able to loosen the soil to help crops grow more easily. Unlike nomads, Neolithic farmers could settle in permanent locations and produce a steady food supply for a growing population.

By about 5500 B.C people had began to dig simple irrigation systems which gave them more abundant crops. At times, they even produced a surplus that could be stored or traded. These prehistoric farmers had gained greater control over their environment than any people before them.

Theories about Development of Food Production

Why did the hunting and gathering communities adapt to the food production instead of continuing with the hunting and gathering mode of life? What factors triggered such a major pre-historical shift?

We all know that food production economies are more efficient and developed than the hunting and gathering mode of life.

But it is at the same time regarded as the more risky and demanding mode of life than hunting and gathering as it require more investment in labor for clearance, maintenance of storage facilities.

Sometimes famine might occur when the crops failed or when domesticated animals died because of drought.

Now why this major shift?

Many theories or hypotheses have been advanced to explain such a major pre-historic change.

Environmental change and stress

It has been argued that, during the end of Pleistocene there were major changes in the environment with the areas settled by hunting and gathering communities becoming dry and the animal and plant resources being concentrated in favoured with enough water supply such as oases, lakes and river valleys. The hunting and gathering communities were therefore forced to these areas and this resulted into symbiotic relationship between humans, animals and plant resources. Finally they domesticated some of the favoured and exploited animal and plant resources.

This hypothesis is usually called OASIS HYPOTHESIS. It was expounded by Gordon Childe.

The second hypothesis is linked to the above one. i.e. Demographic stress is yet another theory

It was advocated by Lewis Binford. He argued that at the end of the Pleistocene some of the existing hunting and gathering communities were forced to abandon the coasts due to the rise in sea levels and settled in less populated areas. These movements led to demographic stress in the areas where plant and animal resources were found. Consequently plant and animal resources available in the occupied area could not sustain the growing number of people. Therefore as resources got reduced, people started to domesticate them for their survival.

One of the earliest hypothesis and probably based on man´s ability for innovation and change was that of a solitary genius who had the brilliant idea of planting some of the plants which were already being processed by the hunting and gathering communities. The invention of this genius were then accepted by the society and spread to other areas, once the advantages of it were appreciated by the people.

N:B – Since it is now clear that food production economies developed independently in many parts of the world, the search for one hypothesis or model to explain such development is no longer attainable. Consequently, reasons for the development of food production can rather be explained independently from each Neolithic site.