The Mfecane War and the rise of the Zulu Kingdom ; History of South Africa

THE RISE OF THE ZULU KINGDOM AND THE MFECANE

Historical evidence suggest that the major feature of South African history from the earliest times was constant and continuous conflicts.

– For example:

• The coming of the Bantu resulted to conflict between the Hottentots and the Bantu and the Bushmen. In this early conflict the Hottentots and the Bushmen were conquered and destroyed.

• Then came the conflict between the Hottentots, Bantu and the Boers.

• Then came the conflict between the Boers and the British

• Then the conflict between African themselves

• One of the major outcome of the conflicts between African themselves was the rise of the Zulu state under Shaka.

• However, before the 18th century, and particularly before the rise of Chaka, the Bantu speaking people were organized in many, but smaller political units. There were about 100 small but independent political units among the Bantu. This kind of political organization was a result of several factors:

– The population was smaller and therefore, there was plenty of land which could support a large number of political units and new settlements.

– Due to internal friction and instability, community members who felt that they were undermined by their ruler could break away and establish their own independent political units.

– Because states were generally smaller, they were governed in a very simple way. Large conflicts were very rare, thus, there was no need of large scale political units and military organization.

• However by the end of the 18th century, the situation greatly changed. There was rapid population increase and thus more land was needed for father expansion. As a result, land could only be acquired by force of arms. Thus, the bravest and strongest political units could acquire land at the expense of their weaker neighbors or enemies.

• Thus, by the beginning of the 19th century, population increase in Zululand and Natal resulted to greater political and military changes. For example:

» Rapid population increase resulted to frequent conflict over land for further expansion.

» War, therefore became the only means of acquiring land resulting to loss of life and properties.

» It also become necessary to improve military organization and methods of fighting to match with the prevailing conditions.

» Important chiefdoms were created. For example:

• Mthethwa chiefdom led by Dingiswayo

• Ndwandwe chiefdom led by Zwide

• Ngwane chiefdom led by Sobhuza.

All these three chiefdoms among the Nguni speakers rose to greatness by military means. Among the three chiefdoms, Dingiswayo’s chiefdom was the largest. It was also during Dingiswayo’s rule that Chaka / Shaka got his early military training and experience.

• Therefore, by the time Shaka rose to power and became an important figure in the history of South Africa, positive development towards creation of larger and more powerful political units had been made.

Shaka and the origin of the Zulu Kingdom

– Shaka was born around1783. His father, Senzangakona was a chief of a very small and less important clan called Zulu clan.

– His mother was called Nandi. The birth of Shaka to Nandi was not welcomed by the Zulu elders. Thus, Shaka was brought up by his mother and away from his father, thus, Shaka was very fond of his mother.

– Brought up away from his father’s home, Shaka had unhappy and difficulty early life. He was always harassed by his play mates to whom he always boasted of his chiefly origin/descendant.

– As he grew up Shaka demonstrated :

• High degree of intelligence and courage

• Qualities accompanied by arrogance and lack of interest to human sufferings

• He was energetic and merciless

• Generally Shaka had the qualities of a man who could shape society for better or worse, by force of arms.

When Shaka was 16, his mother took him to the Mthethwa chief , Dingiswayo, and, at the age of 22, he became a soldier in one of Dingiswayo's regiments. He was brave and the and soon became leader of one of the regiments

– Thus, Shaka gained his military experience as a commander of one of the Dingiswayo’s regiments. Dingiswayo recognized in Shaka the qualities of a brave warrior.

– In bout 1816, his father died and replaced by his son Sigujana. Realizing that he was unable to depose Sigujana, he asked military assistance from Dingiswayo. Following the assistance he got from Dingiswayo, Sigujana was defeated, murdered and Shaka became the ruler of the Zulu. He established his capital at Bulawayo in Natal

From this point onwards, Shaka was determined to make his smaller chiefdom the most powerful and feared Kingdom.

Shaka’s reforms in the Zulu chiefdom

• Military reforms:

Shaka’s training under Dingiswayo taught him new fighting tactics which he put into practice immediately he came to power. The military reforms introduced by Shaka were revolutionary:

– He created standing or permanent army, the system which never existed before. Before him, there was no permanent army, soldiers were only called when a need arose. Otherwise, they stayed in their home attending to their ordinary day to day work.

– Shaka is also supposed to have introduced a larger, and heavier shield made of cowhide and to have taught each warrior how to use the shield's left side to hook the enemy's shield to the right, exposing his ribs for a fatal spear stab. In Shaka's time, these cowhide shields were supplied by the king, and remained the king's property

– He reorganized the old age regiment. Age regiment refers to the situation where by boys of the same age formed a fighting group. The aim of this reorganization was to make them more efficient and effective for large scale warfare. In implementing this:

• Shaka’s Military Induna

» Regiments were introduced throughout the chiefdom

» Each regiment had its color which was the color of its shields and head gear.

» The warriors lived in special military settlement or towns

» Each military settlement was under a military commander called Induna, who was appointed by Shaka himself.

» Each military settlement contained a royal house hold, cattle enclosures and dwelling huts for the warriors.

» In these military settlements warriors were armed with shields and spears, drilled, attired and fed at the King’s or public expense.

» While in military settlements, the warriors sang the praises of Shaka, their Lord and master.

– Shaka drilled his troops frequently, forced marches sometimes covering more than 50 miles (80 km) a day in a fast trot over hot, rocky terrain

– Shaka also introduced short stabbing spears (Iklwa) which had a shorter handle, enabling the solders to engage in hand to hand combat with the enemy.

• The long handle spear (assegai)which was commonly used had one major weakness as a fighting weapon, that is, because it was usually thrown to the enemy, the warriors were left defenseless and helpless but for their large shields.

• But with the new weapon, fighting became more efficient. The warriors could protect themselves with their shields and concentrated on destroying the enemy with their knife like spears. No more would they be left defenseless.

– The warriors were subjected to thorough discipline. They were not allowed to marry before their right time. When the right time came, the whole regiment was freed from service. A female group of the same age or equivalent age group was also freed and its members given to the freed warriors as wives.

– Shaka introduced the so called scotched earth policy. This was a tact by which Shaka’s soldiers destroyed all the food they found along the way in order to starve the coming enemy soldiers.

– Sandals were discarded to toughen the feet of Zulu warriors, this has been noted in various military accounts. Those who objected to going without sandals were simply killed.

– Under Shaka’s leadership, the young men of the conquered people were absorbed into state army and given the same treatment as the Zulu warriors.

They joined appropriate age regiments and mixed with young men from all over the country. If they were too young to join the regiments, they looked after the cattle and acted as weapon bearers for the warriors, like the young Zulu boys.

– Shaka is also credited with the introduction of the famous technique known as the cow’s horn formation. By this means of fighting, the bulk (large portion) of the regiments formed a thick and therefore strong base. On each side of the base, a regiment would curve towards the enemy, rather like the horns of a cow. As the horns tries to surround enemy’s warriors, the thick centre would press / push forward and thereby annihilate / destroy them

Administrative reforms:

Following military reforms introduced by Shaka, then the Zulu nation was a military state ruled by despotic king / king with absolute power, cruel and oppressive.

– The king was the source of all power and army commanders became king’s advisors. They were consulted by him, though he could and often did ignore their advices.

– The old traditional council of chiefs and leading elders came to an end, and therefore it was no longer consulted.

– Even the military Indunas who could advise the king were not allowed to hold unauthorized meetings as they could plot against Shaka.

– Absolute loyalty to the king became the order of the day

– The chiefs of the conquered people lost their power and their authority was restricted to issues related to administration of justice only.

Generally the power rested in the hands of the army and the king. Such was the kind of a state created by Shaka. The Zulu nation was born out of war and organized for war.


Shaka and the Mfecane

This period of revolutionary change known as the Mfecane ("Crushing" or "hammering") by the Zulu and the Difaqane (“The Crushing”) by the Sotho is also often referred to as "the time of troubles“

– Mfecane can therefore be defined as the period of widespread war, plundering, disturbances, destructions and migrations in the Zululand and other parts of South Africa between 1820 and 1834. This period is characterized by the rise of the Zulu State under Shaka.


– Although historians have tried to analyze various factors behind the out break of Mfecane, however, the outbreak of these protracted wars were greatly prodded by the rise of Shaka into power. Why?

– During most of the 1820s, Shaka consolidated his power through a series of wars against neighboring peoples. His armies

• raided for cattle and food;

• attacked any one who challenged the authority of the Zulu monarch; and

• extended the limits of Shaka's realm north to the borders of present-day Mozambique, west across the Drakensberg Mountains, and south to the margins of the area that would later become the Transkei homeland

All these barbaric behaviors and atrocities committed by Zulu warriors greatly contributed to the growth and expansion of Mfecane.

– Most of the wars were fought in areas which lies between the Drankensberg mountains, the Kalahari desert and the Limpopo river.

Causes of the Mfecane

– The rise of the Zulu nation

The result of Shaka’s military and administrative reforms were far reaching. The Zulu became powerful, aggressive, ambitious, and expansionist. The Zulu nation became the state of warriors, maintained by warriors and sustained by warfare and it could only survive as long as there was enough fighting to keep the king, the Indunas and the warriors busy.

The Zulu wanted to dominate all other chiefdoms in the region. This resulted to a series of wars of conquest waged by the Zulu against their neighbors. This situation greatly intensified Mfecane.

– Geographical barriers

Presence of features such as the Drankensberg mountains, the Kalahari desert, and the Indian ocean made it impossible for people to expand to the west and east respectively. This contributed to population pressure in the area resulting to wars for securing land. Thus, wars became the only means to secure land.

– Shortage of land

Many people migrated into the area because the area was generally good for farming due to its fertility. Therefore, this area suffered from population increase. In addition, population increase was also due to natural increase caused by Portuguese introduction of maize from Mozambique which ensured constant and reliable supply of food. Therefore, following increased population growth as a result of migration and natural increase, then, there was severe struggle for land.

– The rise of long distance trade during the 17th century.

From he 17th century, trade had developed along the East coast of South Africa with the Portuguese traders at the Delagoa bay. During the 19th century, this trade came to its peak.

The desire to gain control over trade, trade routes and tributes produced sharp conflicts among the Nguni speakers. As a result of some of the Nguni speakers began to attack and fight others with the intention of becoming dominant political units as the Portuguese wanted to trade with organized political units under powerful rulers.

– Boers expansion

This expansion began towards the end of the 17th century and became more intensive towards mid 19th century. This expansion was triggered by the desire of the Boers to acquire more land for farming and animal keeping. Thus, their expansion further contributed to shortage of land in the interior of South Africa



Shaka’s death

By the end of these wars, Shaka became the most powerful and the most feared ruler in the Zululand. Shaka’s death was preceded by the death of his mother in 1827. Nandi’s death greatly distressed Shaka. Following the death of his mother:

– He proclaimed national mourning for a whole year.

– During the period of mourning women were not allowed to cohabit with their husband.

– For about three months, people were forbidden to drink milk

– Thousands of people of people were put to death for not mourning adequately

– Others who were accused of wishing Nandi’s death were put to death

– Women who became pregnant during the mourning season were also put to death

– Shaka ordered that no crops should be planted during the following year

– Cows were slaughtered so that their calves would know what losing a mother felt like

• In the following year, 24th September 1828 Shaka was stabbed to death by his half brothers, Mhalangana and Dingane, in collaboration with his chief Induna Mbhopa. As he fell down, his last words were “ Oh children of my father, what have I done to you?”

– In other accounts, Shaka is also believed to have said that “ are you stabbing me, king of the earth? You will come to an end through killing one another “

• Shaka's corpse was dumped into an empty grain pit by his assassins and filled with stones and mud. The exact location is unknown

• His murderers claimed that they had killed him to rid the nation of hardship and undemocratic rule, but it is also clear that they killed him out of their own greed and thirst for power.

• After the death of Shaka, Dingane took the throne. However Dingane later killed his brother, Mhalangana, Mbhopa the chief Induna, and all other political rivals in order to gain full powers as the new chief and be safe.



Consequences of Mfecane

– Depopulation: thousands of people were killed. Endless wars turned the whole region full of human corpses and skeletons. It was a land full of death, misery and acute hardship. Where a few people still survived, their conditions were very bad. They were subjected to acute starvation and extreme poverty, many of them resorted to cannibalism in order to survive.

– People became impoverished. A good example of these impoverished refugees were the Fingo. Having lost all their properties, cattle , land and food, they wandered from place to place begging for food and sometimes by force.

– Some outstanding leaders of remarkable ability and wisdom were able to re-organize their people and the numerous refugees into new powerful and united states. The kingdom of Basutoland, Swaziland and Bechuanaland are the best examples of these.

– Mfecane also led to the emergence of entirely new societies both in South Africa and East Africa. They were founded by refugees who trekked away from their original home into distant districts or regions. During their long journey, they conquered in their way and incorporated many of them and their settlement in their new homes, this was always preceded by fighting. The Ngoni who came to settle in Tanzania are good example.

– Economic and social disruption: agricultural activities were abandoned as life became insecure. Many people were killed and others forced into exile. Families as the basis of production were broken down. Beautiful areas like Natal were devastated as communities broke down and people fled to secure their lives

– Weakened African resistance against foreign intruders, particularly the Boers: this weakness led to European penetration in the interiors of South Africa. Boer’s penetration in the interior was due to the news that there existed an extensive fertile land and uninhabited land in the Natal area. When they reached there, they met with no serious resistance because Mfecane had destroyed inter-state relationship among Africans ; and therefore Africans had no unity to resist foreign intrusion.

– Many state were formed along lines of the Zulu kingdom. They borrowed the Zulu military and political organization and modified them to suit their peculiar needs and circumstances. Such state were formed from diverse cultural and linguistic groups, but from these diverse groups emerged powerful united states with a common language, culture, ruler and government. The languages of the dominant groups became the languages of the new, enlarged trans-tribal and expansionist state.

» Example of these were the Swazi, Ndebele, and Ngoni. The new states adopted Zulu military technique and political organization with great success.

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The Boer Trek Meaning and Its consequences; History of South Africa

THE BOER TREK / THE GREAT TREK

• This was the northward and eastward migration away from British control in the Cape colony during the 1830s and 1840s by the Boers.

– The move is viewed as a rebellion against the policies of the British government and in search of fresh pasturelands. The migrating Boers, called themselves Voortrekkers (Afrikaans: “Early Migrants”)

– Having crossed the Limpopo, the Boers were divided, some wanted an outlet to the sea and therefore settled in Natal. Some decided to settle in the Highveld (an inland plateau)area.

– In both areas, after initial setbacks, they were able to defeat powerful African military kingdoms through the skilled use of horses, guns, and defensive laagers / military camps (encampments)

• Continuation…..

– In Natal the Voortrekkers established a short-lived republic, however in 1843, the Boer republic was annexed by the British.

– In 1852 and 1854 the British granted independence to the Trekkers in the Transvaal and Transorangia (the area between the Orange and the Vaal river) regions , respectively

– While the British were establishing themselves at the Cape, the Boers were penetrating further into the territory. This is because the Boers never trusted the British administration at the Cape. They saw their interests being eroded and superseded by these of the British.

– Thus, they decided to move as far away as possible from the control of the British administration.

Causes of the great Boer trek

– The desire to take large tracks of land for crop cultivation and animal keeping. Thus, the vastness of the country and the small number of the colonists had the effect of making the Boers migratory in character.

– Racial prejudice / discrimination: the Boers believed that, they were chosen race, God’s own people. Therefore, they had clear duty to God and mankind to preserve their tradition and culture. They had a responsibility to preserve their race by avoiding mixing with other races.

• The great trek was therefore, regarded by the Boers as something which would provide them an opportunity to preserve the purity of their race and culture by founding a new home in a new country under their control.

• In joining the trek, they believed that, they were fulfilling God’s mission. To keep God’s race from contamination through intermixing with the inferior race.

– Introduction of British judicial system: the new legal changes introduced by the English system of magistrates and abolished the old judicial system of the Dutch. This new system was greatly hate by the Dutch because:

• It was unfamiliar to them, therefore its application caused a lot of inconveniences .

• It was foreign and replaced the Dutch one which was part and parcel of Dutch cultural heritage, which the Boers were fully committed to preserve it.

– Introduction of English language: the Boers are opposed to all forms of alien culture. They preferred to preserve their own customs and civilization. Therefore, they regarded the introduction of English language as deliberate efforts made by the British to undermine their culture. This was one of the most important grievances which contributed to the outbreak of the great trek. Beyond this:

• It as not easy for the old people and rural population to carry out their official transaction in English. They needed more time to learn the new official language.

• They hated the idea of communicating in English as it was a foreign language. Thus, they were not ready to accommodate the new language.

– Removal of restrictions on Africans by the British.

Following the removal of restriction among Africans ( slaves and the Hottentots), the Boers felt insecure.

The removal of restrictions among Africans provide certain degree of civil rights to the Hottentots, Bushmen, and other non white population.

These non white races were given equality before the law with the white population of the Cape. They were allowed to move about without needing to produce a pass on demand. This situation threatened the Boers in a number of ways:

• Continuation…..

» Such legislation could destroy the master servant relationship between the whites and the non white.

» The supply of labor would be affected, the non white became free and would be able to move freely and desert their employers.

» The white would have to compete for jobs with ex-slaves and other non whites

» The situation would encourage the mixing of races and in particular intermarriage. This could spoil the so called “chosen race”.

• Continuation…..

– Emancipation (setting free) of slaves:

the emancipation of slaves by Britain in 1833 was applied to all parts of the British empire, South Africa being included. This became one of the most source of friction between the Boers and the British administration. The Boers resented this because:

• They lost their slaves resulting to shortage of labor.

• Farmers would pay higher wages, where in the past they had paid none in many cases.

• Slaves were regarded as the property of the Boers. Their emancipation was therefore a great financial loss.

– Rumors: there were many rumors at this time that threatened the superiority of the Boers. For example:

• Continuation…..

» All the land would be given to the Hottentots

» The policy of inter racial marriage was coming soon

» The British would soon introduce compulsory military services

» The Dutch would be forced to abandon their Dutch Reformed church and become Roman Catholics.

Such rumors had the effect of rising the political and social temperature, they increased the degree of misunderstanding and contributed to the departure of the Boers from the Cape.

Thus, the Great Trek was a culmination of numerous and long standing grievances and misunderstanding, some of them real but others imaginary.

The progress and results of the Great Trek

• The first trekkers left on November 1835. These were few in number and not well prepared, with limited knowledge about their destination.

• The Trekkers transported their belongings in ox-wagon and moved with their livestock, herdsmen, and domestic servants. By 1836, therefore, it can be confidently said that the Boers were in a full move.

• On their way they encountered several problems:

– Lack of food and other consumer goods. They were thus forced to hunt wild animals to provide them with food.

– They contacted fever, as a result most of them died on the way.

– They lost a great number of their livestock due to long journey and animal diseases.

• Continuation…..

– Resistances from the natives. For example:

• In 1836 they encountered the Ndebele under Mzilikazi. However, the Boers succeeded to defeat him

• The Zulu of Natal also posed the strongest resistance under the leadership of Dingane. The Zulu resistance was stiff as they were prepared to defend their land and sovereignty. However, they were finally mowed down.

• The Xhosa resistance which was the longest, involving a series of wars, from 1779 to 1879. These were also finally defeated.

• However by the end of the 1836, the Zulu also were completely defeated. This enable the Boers to establish the Republic of Natal.

Consequences of the Great Trek

– Continuous wars between Africans and the Boers. The conflicts were mostly over land and cattle ownership. The Xhosa for example, fought for almost 50 years (1830s-1877) with the Boers in their campaign against white domination.

– The establishment of the Boer Republics of the Natal, Orange Free State and the Transvaal. These were independent self governed republics created by the Boers in the northern and eastern parts of South Africa. Several of these states were established after military defeats of the local population by the Boers who had superior weapons.

– Discovery of precious minerals in the interior. The most important were gold and diamond.

• In 1867 diamond was discovered along the Vaal and Orange river.

• In 1886, gold was discovered in Witwatersrand.

The discovery of these precious metals was responsible in transforming the economy of South Africa from an agricultural one to industrial one.

• Continuation….

– The interior was opened for European settlement. More and more Europeans went to settle in the interior of South Africa where they established large farms and ranches.

– In the Boer Republics, cultural differences between the Boers and the Africans were clear as each side maintained its traditional values. The relationship between master and servant continued in the traditions laid down by the Boers.

– The Boers used brutal force and trickery to rob the Africans of their wealth, particularly land and cattle. Africans were thus made propertyless laborers and squatters on the Boers farms. Thus plundering and looting of African wealth and the exploitation of African labor became the basis of the Boer economy.

• Continuation……

– Existence of apartheid based on racial segregation was one of the effects of the Boer trek. Having occupied and established themselves in the interior of South Africa, the Boers were forced to preserve their material interests. They had to maintain themselves as a strong united group by treating the Africans as their enemies to be eliminated or as their source of cheap labor.

– The Boers regarded the British as imperialists threatening their cultural and economic interests. This hostility between the Boers and the British colonizers eventually resulted to violent clashes / armed conflicts, especially when the British wanted to annex the Boer republics. (Briefly describe the concept “Anglo-Boer wars”.)

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British control of the Cape and Boer Trek; History of South Africa

British control of the Cape

• In 1795 the British troops invaded the Cape colony, and after some minor resistance, the British captured the Cape. British invasion of the Cape aimed at controlling the Cape so as to have a strong foothold over the sea route to India via the Cape.

• A number of factors combined to weaken the Dutch, the Dutch East Indian company and the Cape colony Dutch administration, thus, causing the Dutch to finally lose the Cape colony to the British:

– The Dutch were faced with severe competition from the French and the British, thus, undermining their commercial and economic position. This weakened the abilities of the Dutch to have a strong control over the Cape.

• Continuation….

– At the Cape, the Dutch suffered from administrative inefficiency, corruption, and commercial restrictions which resulted to severe discontents on the part of the settlers at the Cape. This also weakened the Dutch East Indian company, and in 1794 it declared bankrupt.

• This implied then that, company administration at the Cape was financially weak to support its army to resist British occupation of the Cape.

– Widespread discontents among settlers. For example:

• The settlers felt that they were not adequately protected by the Cape government against local Africans some of whom were brave and skilled fighters.

• They complained that, they, rather than the Cape administration be given the burden of defense in their conflict with the Africans.



• Continuation….

These complaints resulted to settler rebellion of 1795. these settler grievances and the rebellion was a clear indication that the Dutch administration at the Cape was weak.

– British desire to prevent the Cape from falling into the hands of the French who also aimed at controlling the Cape. By this time, British was getting a lot of wealth from India. For this reason, British control of the sea route to India was important.

If the Cape fell under the French, then, the French would prevent British ship from calling at the Cape on their way to or from India and Europe. So it was necessary for the British to gain control of the Cape.

• Continuation…

British reforms at the Cape

After capturing the Cape, the British tried their firm control at the Cape and therefore contain the Dutch settlers. In so doing, they introduced a number of social, economic, and political reforms.

Economy

– They introduced new paper money to replace the old Dutch notes which had greatly fallen in value.

– They reduced official salaries

– The government reduced the number of public projects and the amount of money spent on them.

– The policy of giving financial assistance to new immigrants of the Cape was stopped.

• Continuation…..

The church

– The Dutch Reformed Church which was dominant at the Cape was now given a certain degree of freedom and government representatives ceased to attend the meeting of its council. This church was introduced at the Cape in 1652 by Jan Vaan Riebeck, it was almost a state church at the Cape as all the Boers were the followers of this church

– For the Catholic church, the British government at the Cape decided to pay their priests, a privilege already enjoyed by the Dutch Reformed Church. This meant then, that, during British era, the Catholism dominated at the Cape and replaced the Dutch Reformed Church.

– Generally, the position of the church improved and freedom of worship was extended to all denomination at the Cape.

• Continuation…

Language

– The British made a proclamation / public announcement to replace Dutch language by English language as official language. Thus, in 1828 English language became the official language of the Cape.

The press

– The new British government removed some of the restrictions on the press which restricted the freedom of press. The press was given more freedom than it was before. As a result, the number of papers increased and printed both in Dutch and English.

The Judiciary

– A supreme (highest) court was introduced, and judges were to be appointed by the British Queen

• Continuation….

– The Judges were supposed to be independent, in other words, they could hold offices for as long as their conduct / behavior were proper and the Governor could not dismiss them. This aimed at making the judiciary more reliable and just.

Administration.

– The Dutch settlers were not allowed to any important say in the running of the state. They were the conquered people and had to be governed strongly.



– The advisory council was set up in Cape town. It consisted of the Governor, chief Justice, and Colonial Secretary. Its functions were mainly advisory, that is, to advise the Governor, although the Governor could reject the advice.

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White colonization at the Cape and its Consequences; History of South Africa part iii

WHITE COLONIZATION OF THE CAPE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES


The history of South African colonization goes back to the journeys of discoveries organized by the Portuguese. The climax of these dangerous and tiresome sea journeys came in 1497 when the famous Portuguese Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope as far as the present day Natal.

Since then, the route around the Cape of Good Hope became very important in European commercial relation with Asia. These commercial relation between Europe and Asia were dominated by British Dutch, and Portuguese through their chartered companies. For example:

• Continuation….

– In 1600 the English East India company was founded ( British company)

– Two yeas later, that is in 1602, various Dutch companies amalgamated to form the Dutch East Indian Company, what was financially powerful than the English one.

• However, for the traders, the journey from Europe to the far East was too long and tiresome. By the end of the journey for example:

– The traders and crew (all the people who work on the ship) were extremely tired.

– Quite frequently they run out off fresh water (note that ocean water are too saline to drink)

– They also run out of fresh vegetable and fruits

– Many died on the way as a result of diseases

– Many more suffered scurvy as a result of lack fresh supply of vegetable and fruits.

– Their ship were greatly wrecked by storms.

• Continuation……
• As a result of all these problem, it was quiet clear that there was a need for a calling station/ refreshment station/ half way life, where:

– The long journey could be broken down

– Fresh supplies of food and water could be obtained

– The wrecked ship could be repaired

– The sick could be treated

– The ship could be refueled.

– The crew could get refreshments

• Thus, between 1619 and 1647 several attempts to identify and establish a calling station were made by traders and sailors without success.

– In 1647, the Haarlem, a Dutch East Indian Company’s ship was wrecked at the Table bay, the region around modern Cape Town. The traders and the crew remained there for six months.

• Continuation….

– To sustain their lives, they had to grow vegetables and bartered /exchanged them with the local people for meat.

– Throughout that period of their stay, they realized the area had favorable climate and fertile soils, and thus was suitable for settlement.

– On their return home after repairing their wrecked ship (Haarlem), these traders and the crew who stacked at the Cape for six months, gave a good report about the area (Table bay)

– Such good news triggered the Dutch East Indian Company to establish a calling station at the Table Bay.

– The responsibility of establishing a calling station was given to Jan Van Riebeck who officially arrived at the Cape on 4th June, 1652.

• Continuation…..

– Jan Van Riebeck was instructed by the company that the station would serve four important functions:

• A fort called Good Hope was to be built at the Cape to accommodate a garrison for defensive purposes (to defend and foster Dutch commercial interests)

• The station was to supply sailors with vegetables, fruits, and meat, and therefore vegetable gardens had to be established . Meat had to be obtained by exchanging European goods for cattle and sheep from Hottentots.

• The station was to act as a place of refreshment for the sailors following long journeys.

• A hospital was to be built to treat the sick, and here sailors could get treatment and rest.

• Continuation…..

However the practicality of establishing a refreshment station and running it in a distant and unfamiliar land was a great challenge to Jan Vaan Riebeck and other employees at the station.

Thus, the first ten (10) years were full of disappointments. The common problems that Jan Vaan Riebeck and other employees of the company encountered at the Cape included the following:


– They arrived during the dry season . Therefore, from the very beginning , the company’s servants at the Cape suffered from malnutrition, scurvy and generally poor health caused by unexpected and prolonged drought and therefore, they were unable to grow food. Thus, most of them were disappointed with the living conditions at the Cape.

• Continuation….

– When the rain season came, it brought a lot of discomfort/ embarrassment. The company’s men lived in old tents and poorly constructed wooden huts. Leaking roofs, wet floor and cold huts became additional problems.

– The rain also came with severe dysentery (severe diarrheas with loss of blood

– Cattle and sheep for barter / exchange were not always available at the right time as the Hottentots pastoralists were constantly moving with their cattle in search of pasture.

– Though the settlers were expected to grow some food, they were too few for the task, and they were not experienced farmers

– They were required to grow wheat and barley which needed much care and money, particularly during the first few years of experimentation.

• Continuation…

• Thus, if the refreshment station at the Cape was to serve the purpose for which it was built, a new policy for overcoming the obstacles had to be adapted. Thus, Jan Vaan Riebeck proposed several recommendations to improve the situation:


– It was decided to expand the settlement to bring more and more land under cultivation in order increase agricultural production.

– It was decided to increase the number of workers and more men were also needed

– The workers should be free men and not employees of the company and then, these workers would be given plots of land free of charge.

• Continuation….

• These recommendations were accepted by the company. Thus, in February 1657, the first group of settlers were discharged from company’s service and given plots around the Cape to begin implementing the recommendations.


• With the establishment of this settlement, the process of European colonization of South Africa began. Generally, progress was so low, however, by 1672, there were only 64 colonists / settlers at the Cape.

• Continuation…

Dutch progress at the Cape

• As already noted, Dutch progress at the Cape in the early years was so slow. The slow development at the Cape was due to strict regulations imposed by the company, which rigidly controlled the activates of the colonists/settlers.


• These regulations made it impossible for individual colonists to prosper/flourish (do well) economically. For example:


– The colonists were required to remain in the country for 20 years without leaving the colony. This means that, their stay in South Africa was a 20 years contract.


– The colonists had to participate in the defense of the colony/country, apart from their normal farming function.
– The worst restriction was that prices of foodstuff they produced were kept very low by the company, while the facilities for marketing such commodities were severely limited. For example:


• Continuation……


All cattle had to be sold to the company at a fixed price, regardless of cattle health, size, weight or age.


The colonists were not allowed to pay more money to the Hottentots for their cattle than the price paid by the company ( they were supposed to offer the same price as the one offered by the company)


 In order to protect the company’s monopoly of trade in tobacco, the colonists were not allowed to grow tobacco, and instead, they had to grow sufficient vegetables to meet company’s needs. This aimed at minimizing competition in tobacco production.


 In return for the right of pasturage, the settlers had to pay 10% of their cattle to the company.

• Continuation….

• Thus, by the end of 1650s, the Cape settlement was still very small and temporary in nature. It consisted of small number of fruit growers, gardeners and keepers.

• In other respect however, the settlement had some improvements. For example:

– A temporary hospital was built to offer medical services to the traders and crew.

– Slave labor was introduced. This aimed at making labor abundant , cheap, and therefore, lower the cost of production. The first 12 slaves arrived in 1657 from Java (modern Indonesia) and Madagascar, the following year 185 slaves were imported from West Africa. By 1708 the number of slaves scored 1200.

• Continuation…

The use of slave labor had far reaching effects in the history of South Africa:
– The policy of racial superiority and racial discrimination originated from slave labor policy by the end of the 17th century.

– The Boers hated unskilled tasks and hard work. Hard work was considered to be the domain of Non-Europeans who were regarded as hewers of woods and drawers of water

– The use of slaves in South Africa was the birth of an entirely new community, the Cape colored people. These were people of a mixed race, being the result of the union between the Boers , and the slaves, Hottentots, Bushmen, and Xhosa. By 1820 the Cape coloreds had gradually abandoned their original languages and adapted Afrikaans, the language spoken by the Boers.

• Continuation….
Souring / unfriendly relations and wars between the Boers and the Africans

• As the number of the Boers grew at the Cape, they found it important to expand further in the interior. Thus, by 1770s the Boers had advanced some 500 miles east of Cape town. The possible explanation for their expansion further into the interior include the following:

– In the early years there was plenty of unoccupied land. This encouraged the settlers to move from one area to another

– The settlers used superior weapons especially firearms to crush down any attempt made by local population to limit their expansion. In this way, they were able to expand and spread further in to the interior.
• Continuation….

– The Hottentots had been greatly weakened by small pox epidemics of 1713, thus making unable to pose a stiff resistance against Boer expansion in the interior. Following this epidemic, the Hottentots population sharply declined, and they became highly disorganized. This provided a room for the Boers to expand.

– Apart from the Cape area, most of the land was a semi desert with scanty and unreliable rainfall. This encouraged the Boers to migrate from one are to another in search of good land with adequate rainfall and water supply.

– Company’s laws greatly restricted the economic activities of the settlers. Prices of local products were kept extremely low for the farmers to make high profit. This disappointment encouraged the settlers to move away from the Cape to establish new homes in the areas where they would be free from such restrictions and official control.

• Continuation…..

– Insecurity of land tenure (occupancy rights) had a negative effect of discouraging improvements.

» For example:

• On the death of the owner of the land (farm),the buildings within the farm and any other valuable properties, particularly permanent ones, were sold by auction (public sale).

• The money obtained from the sale were then divided equally among the heirs/inheritors of the deceased

Therefore, this company’s land policy made them to move away to areas where they would be free from such restrictions.

• Continuation…..

This expansion made the Boers to come into direct contact with the indigenous African population, especially the Hottentots. This territorial expansion of the Boers therefore, took place at the expanse of the indigenous Africans.

– For example:

• The khoi were dispossessed of their grazing land

• The Khoi were dispossessed of their cattle

• The Khoi were forced to offer their labor power as laborers and herdsmen.

• Trading relations and transactions among Africans were greatly interrupted by the Boers expansion.

• The Khoi lost their political sovereignty and dignity.

• Continuation…

• Following massive expansion of the Boers, the Khoi managed to unite in armed opposition several times. Despite their brave attacks, the Khoi, were defeated.

• Having accepted defeat, the Boers assumed that all Khoikhoi land, no matter where it be, was free and empty land and therefore ,theirs to take.

• Thus, by the end of the 18th century, the Cape colony had considerably expanded. It had started as a temporary calling station consisting of a few houses on shores of the Table bay. Gradually it developed into a beautiful small town with the necessary defense systems and basic social services.

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Top legit ways to make money with your android phone, iphone, tablet or computer

1. Doing survey online. You can earn some dollars by filling out some surveys online which will pay you by answering questions. However there are some survey which are not legit, they are only wasting your times but you will never get paid. BUT dont worry you are jn the right place where you will get trusted site for making money online with your phone or computer.

• There is another issue in registrations, some survey only accept members from USA,Canada, and Europe. Example swagbux and vindale research and or toluna will not accept members from other countries.
• However there is international site where you can carry out your survey. And this one is which i use, and i have received my first $ 15 here >> Paid view points Survey

2. You can earn money or bitcoins through your phone or computer by viewing advertisement on GPTC or PTC website !. One among of the legit site is Ads4btc, where you can earn bitcoins by viewing ads. I have registered in this site and i will show you the screen shot below, if you are intereseted earning money online then you are in the right place. Remembe one bitcoin is equal to $6009 which is equal to 12 milions Tanzania shilings however it increase its value everyday.
The best high paying ads for bitcoin site is ads4BTC however there are many site around the intnernet. See screenshot below:-

You can make money online by viewing advertisement in your free time, if you are interested then register here ads4BTC.

3. You can also make money online by blogging, you have to go on google and register for free domain or if you wish you can buy your own domain and start bloging and earn dollar online. 

4. You can earn money by writing article to hubpages. Hubpages may pay you if you will write quality articles and which have more traffics. 

Hubpages do not need coding skills or do not need being a webmaster because they have prepared everything for you to type and drag your photos related to articles, as long as you know how to write good articles then you can earn money !. 

Register here ! https://hubpages.com

5. You can also make more money on amazon by selling oit ebooks. If you have something like useful notes saved on doc or pdf then insteady of storing them on yor pc or phone just sell them on amazon or other place accepting ebooks for selling.

 I have tried registering on amazon and i have 10 published books and i have already earned my $ 130 in only three months.

below is the screenshot of my books, written by peter michael kiluasha (ciluashaz)

https://kdp.amazon.com/ if you wish to sell your books then register here and start earning money online.

Last Words

NB: Remember there is no such easy money making momey is not simple you need alot of efforts. But do not fail to try but try and then fail.

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How to register to the Salary slip portal official site; Tutorial with pictures

The Ministry of Finance has provided an official portal for getting salary slip through online (online) for public servants.

*Before starting make sure you have your salary slip and your bank account number,, then register using this link>>>>https://salaryslip.mof.go.tz/

* Required information *
> Check number
> Your names are three
> Date of birth
> Vote (for example 88Z2)
> Subvote (eg 5007)
> Account your bank account
> Salary Scale (full of TGTS, TGS, n.k)
> Salary Grade (filling B, C, D, E, e.g.
> Salary Step (will fill 1,2,3 n

NB; To get your vote codes check out your salary slip on the leftside of your check number.

If you successfully registered then you will be redirected to the next page to fill it out
> Phone number
> email address
> Password

You will be able to start using it within 24 hours

Visit the link to sign up here Salary slip portal

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Nationalism in Tanganyika and Post independence; History of Tanzania part vii

NATIONALISM IN TANZANIA


• Defining African nationalism: is the desire of the African people to rule themselves, and terminate all kinds of foreign rule and exploitation.

• Basically it is the political will of the Africans to oppose all forms of foreign domination, but in favor of African rule. It presents African struggle against western colonialism and imperialism.

• Nationalism can generally be defined as the political expression of nationhood, which reflects the consciousness of belonging to a nation. It is the consciousness which people in given community have acquired about themselves, and it has to be base on the following attributes: common language, common culture, common territory with fixed boundaries, a common historical experience.

• Continuation

Origin of nationalist conscious

• There is a debate among historians on when and why nationalism began in Africa and Tanganyika in particular:

Ø The first school of thought maintains that nationalism began with primary resistances at the beginning of colonial rule. Example of prominent leaders to justify this argument includes Abushiri, Isike, Mkwawa, Makunganya, etc. These tried to resist the imposition of colonial rule by fighting through direct confrontation.

– This school of school of thought asserts that nationalism began with the onset of colonialism. This school of thought is dominated by nationalist historians of the 1960s like Temu, Kimambo, Gilbert Gwasa and Terrance Ranger.

– The position of these historians is that the wars of initial resistances against colonial intrusion is the reflection of African nationalism.

• Continuation…

– However this school of thought has been refuted by some historians as not convincing. The reasons being raised are :

• the leaders of those resistances and their societies reacted individually and not as part of Tanganyika.

• They also fought to regain their economic interests in trade

Ø The second school of thought maintains that modern nationalism began with secondary resistances such as boycotts, strikes, uprisings, trade unionism, and demonstrations of the period after 1945.

ü In addition to this idea, nationalism has to be characterized by the formation of countrywide political organizations after the second world war. Most historians who have studied the rise of modern of nationalism have supported this argument of secondary resistance.

• Continuation…

• In East Africa, mass nationalism had three characteristics:

– It aimed to control the political center of the country and the legislative council.

– In achieving their goals, the nationalist leaders tried to mobilize mass support and by expressing popular demands.

– They intended to use their central power and mass support to unite all the people of the country into a single nation featured by citizenship, not race, not religion, not political belief.

• In examining the nature, scope, and dynamics of nationalism in colonial Tanganyika, one has to ask several fundamental questions: Why did the British leave Tanganyika at the time they did? Why couldn’t they leave earlier or much later? Had their departure been long planned or was it contrary to their earlier plans? How complete was their pull out ? what was the long term motives of different groups and individuals actively involved in the nationalist struggle?

• THE ROLE OF LOCAL POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONALISM

• The period between 1920 and 1940 witnessed the formation of many African voluntary political associations and unions ranging from rural to urban, and from economic to purely social organizations. By 1930s, Tanganyika had experienced three types of political association non of which was nationalist in character:

Ø Formation of Tanganyika Territory African Civil service Association (TTACSA) in Tanga in 1922 under Martin Kayamba. This was an elitist organization that:

– Thought to protect its members, Claimed to speak for the interests of Africans, To maintain close fellowship, Maintain sportsmanship, Free reading and social advancement, Represent African views in debates over government issues.

ü In 1939, TTACSA was transformed from a social club into a political organization, Tanganyika African Association(TAA).

• Continuation….

Ø Formation of tribal unions, the most radical of these were the Bukoba-Buhaya Union(1924) led by Clement Kiiza and the Kilimanjaro Native Planters Associations (1925) founded by Joseph Merinyo. These greatly opposed the chiefs because:

ü They were employees of the colonial administration and

ü They received more favors from the British than the common people in terms agricultural services and social services.

Ø Popular resistances expressed in opposition to agricultural regulations and government policies. This was featured by peasants’ revolts in almost every corner of the colony. But these did not seek political control.

• Non of these was a nationalist movement , but they were elements from which nationalist movement was eventually created. When the three types of politics came together, on July 1954, Tanganyika National ism was born.

• Fundamental factors that triggered off nationalist tendencies

• In order to understand the nature of nationalist struggle in Tanganyika, one has to examine the changes which were taking place within the colony, especially on the colonial production system (colonial economy):

ü Economic hardship after the 1st world war, the Great Depression, and the 2nd world war produced a political climate in which colonialism could not survive. This was followed by a series of civil and labor unrest. For example a series of Dar es salaam Dock workers strikes in 1939, 1943, and 1947.

ü Participation of people in the production of cash crops created all kind of grievances, which in turn led to the rise of rural discontent and radicalism.

• Continuation…

ü Colonial education, this did not serve the colonialists as they had expected. Education made the educated elites to know their rights which they believed and argued were not different from those of Europeans minority in the colony. It was in the struggle to win these rights that they needed to destroy colonialism was realized.

• Thus, colonialism like capitalism created its own grave diggers.

• THE RISE OF MASS NATIONALISM IN TANGANYIKA

TRANSFORMATION OF TAA INTO TANU AND THE BASIS OF TANU VICTORY

A: TRANSFORMATION OF TAA INTO TANU

• TTACSA was founded in Tanga in 1922 by Martin Kayamba as social club to meet the interests of the few elites. In 1939 some of TTACSA members took part in the founding of TAA.

• After its inception in 1939, TAA began to expand countrywide and campaign for the mass support from rural areas which was crucial for the nationalist struggle.

• While the number of its branches was only nine in 1939, this number had grown to 39 in 1948. This massive expansion was vivid in Nyanza province where branches were opened in Ukerewe, Tarime, Musoma, Bukoba, and Nasa. In this way, the lake province became the base of nationalist struggle in the country.

• Continuation….

• TAA’s upsurge was a result of:

– individual initiatives and enthusiasm of such figures like Kandoro, Munanka, Bomani, Sykes, Kaselabantu, etc

– annual conferences which drew leaders together and gave them a common direction. The most important conference was the 1945 Dodoma conference which called for the organization and the mobilization of the masses for political action.

• In early 1954, TAA had acquired stable leadership, membership organization, style, and ideology making it to have a status of a full scale political movement.

• With such qualities, the annual conference of 7th July 1954 transformed TAA into TANU.

• The existence of one political organization, TAA, which TANU replaced and built upon, certainly explain in part why TANU as a single mass party spread quickly.

• B. The victory of TANU 1954-1961

• The coordinator of nationalist activities was TANU than any other political organization. Upon its foundation, TANU had the following the following objectives:

– To prepare the people of Tanganyika for self rule and to fight tirelessly for national freedom-Uhuru

– To fight tribalism and any other factor which would hinder the development of unity among Africans.

– To abolish all sorts segregation

– To encourage and help workers to establish trade unions

– To cooperate with other organizations whose aims and objectives were not contrary to those of TANU.

– To become a sole spokesman for all sufferers and champion the grievances and aspirations of the masses.

• FACTORS THAT FAVORED THE GROWTH AND EFFECTIVE OPERATION OF TANU

INTERNAL FACTORS

• Existence of TAA. TANU made use of the existing TAA branches. In 1955 Mwl. Nyerere noted the importance of TAA branches in laying down the foundation upon which TANU was built. He used the following words “ in the last ten months, we have tried to organize ourselves. The branches of TAA became automatically branches of TANU, and they are scattered all over the country.”

• Effective leadership. TAA politicians ( Bomani, Kimalandu, Munanka etc) became the first promoters and guardians of TANU. The leadership was united and always avoided quarrels which could divide the party

• Continuation….

• TANU got support from other organized groups such as cooperative movements, the Youth league, Women section of the party through Titi, and Tanganyika Federation of Labor( TFL). All these strengthened the bargaining power of TANU

• Kiswahili being a lingua franca of Tanganyikans was effectively used in uniting the people and coordinating activities of nationalist movement. Because it was understood almost everywhere in the country, leaders used it in public meetings and were fluent in using it.

• TANU capitalized on the workers and peasants demands. The nationalist leaders had only to point at the weaknesses of the colonial system. For TANU supported peasants’ movements against destocking, cotton cess, cattle tax, low prices of agricultural crops, head tax, land usage policies, etc. in this way TANU was able to win the support of the rural masses.

• EXTERNAL FACTORS

• Sympathetic support from the United Nations. In 1954 the United Nation mission accepted TANU as a legal nationalist movement. In march 1955 Mwl.Nyerere went to address the Trusteeship council of UN.

ü There he expressed the objectives of TANU, suggested the elective principles and told that the future government of Tanganyika would be primarily African. In 1956 he made another visitation to the UN and he won international support.

• Independence of other countries in Africa and Asia brought the idea that even Tanganyikans will one day regain their lost independence. Nationalist leaders drew examples from countries such as Ghana, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, etc. The attainment of independence in these areas motivated nationalist zeal within TANU leadership.

• Continuation…

• The influence of Pan Africanism. The movement had its origin from the United States. It gained momentum after the 2nd world war. The movement advocated not only liberation of Africa, but also the political unification of Africa.

ü The Manchester Pan African conference of 1945 demanded for African independence and an end to all sorts of African exploitation. The impact of these demands was to arouse conscious and desire of Africans to rule themselves.

• The existence of socialist block (USSR). This block was against imperialism and capitalism. By 1945 the block began pressurizing imperialist countries to grant independence to their colonies. They thus started supplying material and moral support to nationalist movements in Africa and the world around.

• Continuation…

• The returned soldiers of the second world war. The belief that Europeans are powerful and infallible (perfect) was destroyed by the involvement of African soldiers in the war.

ü African soldiers who participated in the war proved to be good and brave fighters, and efficient than their counterpart whites.

ü This was a clear justification that Africans had the ability to defeat Europeans . This was an encouragement and therefore a positive effect on the struggle for independence as most of these ex-soldiers became involved and used their war experience, theories and exposure to lead nationalist movements

• TANU’S STAMBLING BLOCKS

• Nationalist struggles in Tanganyika faced strong oppositions from individuals, organized groups, established institutions, political parties as well as the colonial government. All these groups designed strategies and tactics to ensure that independence is either not regained or delayed.

• The following are some of the obstacles or problems faced TANU operations:

• The Register General of political parties used various delaying tactics to frustrate the efforts of TANU members and leaders. He delayed the process of registering different TANU branches. However, TANU leadership used a compromising spirit.

ü TANU branches registered by the end of 1954 were Dar es salaam, Tabora, North Mara, Singida, and Tarime. By 1955, Rungwe, Kisarawe, Kilosa, Kilwa, Lindi, Iramba, Ukerewe, Musoma, and Bagamoyo were the only registered branches.

• Continuation…..

• Some TANU members and leaders were intimated, detained and even imprisoned by District Commissioners in such places like Singida, Musoma, and Mwanza. Such hostilities however acted as a catalyst and gave TANU increasing solidarity in the struggle to rid the country of the colonial domination and racial discrimination.

• Other TANU branches were closed and activities of TANU were banned in some areas. This was first employed in Sukumaland where rural radicalism characterized the area. And it was in Sukumaland where TAA activities brought headaches right from the beggining. The District Registrar declined to register party branches in Shinyanga, Geita, Nassa, Nera, and Malampaka. In October 1954 Mwanza branch was banned.

• Continuation..

• Formation of the United Tanganyika Party (UTP) in 1956. Colonial government sponsored the formation of reactionary organizations. The strongest of these was the United Tanganyika Party formed by chiefs and Europeans in 1956 for the purpose of challenging TANU and maintaining colonial interests.

ü The reactionary character of UTP was demonstrated by its stated objectives and membership. It did not aim at the attainment of transitional independence, but at continuing the affiliation of Tanganyika to the colonial power. Thus UTP did every thing possible to prevent a smooth transfer of power to TANU.

• TANU had the responsibility of educating its people on unity and do away with divisive obstacles such as tribalism, racialism and religious differences.

• Continuation…

• The colonial state thought to tarnish the image of TANU by branding it a riotous movement.

• The colonial government prevented civil servants from joining TANU, thus depriving the movement of much needed leadership.

TANU’S POPULARITY AND SUCCESS

• TANU’s popularity and success were indicated by the general elections victory. All TANU sponsored candidates won the election irrespective of their racial origins. On the other hand, all the UTP candidates were defeated and this marked its demise.

• Following the 1958 victory, TANU could no longer be ignored by Britain. The colonial state was forced to deal with TANU in more liberal way. The new Governor, Richard Turnbull, for example , developed a cordial relationship with the party president, Julius K. Nyerere,

• Continuation….

• While TANU continued to score one victory after the other, some of its members became dissatisfied with TANU moderate policies against the colonial state. They argued for a more militant African stand. It was this latter group within TANU which broke away and formed the African National Congress (ANC), during the 1958 Tabora election. But even after his split, TANU remained strong and the only party that could lead Tanganyika to independence.

• Britain went ahead to lay the ground for neo-colonial relations with the post independence Tanganyika. This was done mainly by framing a constitution of independence of Tanganyika in such a way that the banks, factories, workers and employers, peasants and cooperatives, the army, the police and prison, and the judiciary remained intact.

• Continuation….

• In short the Lancaster House Constitution inherited at independence ensured that Britain capitalist interests would continue to exploit Tanganyika just as they used during the colonial period.

• Thus, in the elections of August 1960, the Tanganyikans elected 71 representatives to the Legislative Council (LEGCO). By virtue of this victory, TANU formed the first responsible government , which, together with the colonial state worked for a smooth transfer of power to the Africans. At the mid night, on 9th December 1961, the people of Tanganyika regained their independence.

• POST INDEPENDENCE TANZANIA

• The country achieved her independence in 1961. However the independence attained could not bring about positive changes immediately as the country was still entangled in economic dependence relationship created under colonial rule.

• Generally:

– The country lacked the necessary man power to hold senior administrative positions in the government

– The economy relied on developed countries for export of cash crops and unrestricted investments

– Development plans were prepared by donor countries, mostly to cater for their interests

• Continuation…

• Rugumamu (1997) identified 4 major problems that the new independent Tanganyika experienced:

– The country inherited a structurally weak and dependent economy , with limited skilled personnel. Hence, it had to rely on ex-colonial officials to operate the state.

– The inherited education was weak, and could not provide room for preparing specialists who could resolve major problems of the new independent state.

– The new state began with a weak institutional and organizational capacity to define, defend, and develop comprehensive long term plans and strategies

– The new government had to be run by politicians with limited functional skills and experience to run the new state. This was attributed to 2 reasons (i) British government proscribed government employees from engaging in political activities (ii) senior administrative posts were reserved for white personnel only



• Continuation…

• According to Rugumamu, it is against these problems that the country was forced to inherit conical government personnel and all its institutions ( the civil service, coercive instruments) and their traditions.

• This kind of a state is referred to as the Neo-colonial state, a state whose economic, social and political operation depends on the metropolitans.

• This dependence on former colonial officials, threatened the survival and effective operation of the new state. This because the colonial officials had little regard, loyalty and commitment to the nationalist development aspirations.

• As result, the attainment of independence brought the challenges of national building. Thus, the new nationalists had a task of building the new nation.



• Continuation…

• In the process of building the new nation, 4 major issues were involved:

– Transfer of power. This was implemented through Africanization. This aimed at decolonizing and Africanizing the administration, the army, political system, civil service, commerce, industry and agriculture.

• The negative side of the Africanization policy was that the new African personnel who replaced the white personnel enjoyed high standard of living and income than the common citizen. They became corrupt instead of serving the people.

– Security issue: security issue became a central concern of the new government since 1964 following the mutiny. The mutiny was a result of discontents among the soldiers. They complained about low speed of Africanizing the army as top most posts were still occupied by European officials. However the mutiny was put under control

• The mutiny was followed by a serious reorganization of the army. This involved recruitment of new soldiers and military officials from the party (TANU) and TANU youth association (TANU Youth league)

• Continuation…

• Forging new institutions and ideology. In the process of forging new institution and ideology to foster national development various approaches were adopted:

– Various trade unions were amalgamated into single National Union of Tanganyika workers (NUTA) in 1964

– To avoid cold war politics the new state opted for the Non Aligned Movement.

– In 1964, Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanzania

– Tanganyika led liberation struggles for the southern African countries. As a result Dar es Salaam became became the headquarters of liberation struggles.

– The post of local chiefs was abandoned, allowing the party to extend its structures and organizations to the grass root

• Continuation….

• Inaugurating development strategies. To ensure effective growth and development of anew nation, the government adopted 3 development strategies. The 1st three years development plan, the 1st five years development plan and the 2nd five years development plan

• The 1st three years development plan 1961-1964

– This plan aimed at ensuring that British colonial policies and interests continue to operate in the post colonial period with little interruption as possible.

– The plan was based on the traditional theory of time. The theory stated that, development of post colonial Tanganyika had had to depend largely on capital, experts, and technology from western capitalist powers

• Continuation…..

– Further more the plan emphasized on liberal investment code, that is free trade, private sectors, and non governmental intervention in the economy (free market economy).

– In effecting this policy the plan emphasized that the role of the government was develop infrastructure so that private economic enterprise can operate smoothly.

– The plan directed the Tanganyika towards the capitalist economy.

– Briefly, the plan perpetuated colonialism because its directives were similar to the way colonial economy operated in Tanganyika.



• Continuation

• The 1st five years development plan 1964-1969

• It was developed to take over from the 1st three years development plan. It has almost the same content and objectives as the 1st three years development plan.

• The only few different objectives were

– To end the country’s reliance on export of primary commodities by promoting industrialization and agriculture

– Its implementation depended on capital from both internal sources(22%) and external sources (78%).

– Large percent of external sources of capital was to come from Britain

• The 2nd five years development plan 1969-1974

• The second five years development plan generally aimed at translating the Arusha Declaration into concrete policy programs.

THE ARUSHA DECLARATION

• The achievement of independence was spoiled by emergence of social differentiation among Africans.

ü The Africanization policy made new elites using the wealth they had accrued from leadership position enjoy expensive and luxurious life style of living.

ü The new leaders also acquired property and shares as well as directorship in private companies.

• As a result, a new bureaucratic class of African elites was emerging. It was the Arusha declaration of 1967 which among other things aimed at arresting this trend and defined the way in which the new nation was to be built.

• Continuation…

• The Arusha Declaration was adopted in 5th February, 1967 by the National Executive Council (NEC) of TANU in Arusha. The declaration guided the country to build a socialist society. It was a sort of a vision in Tanzania that set out economic and social priorities.

• The declaration was rooted in socialism and self reliance strategies, because it was realized that it was difficult to build national capitalism.

Ø By socialism the declaration meant public ownership of the means of production, distribution and consumption. This meant the state had greater power to intervene economic activities of the state. It also meant people working together for their socio-economic survivals, communal villages was a result of this view.

• Continuation….

Ø The policy of self reliance had two dimension

o Internal dimension: this aimed to mobilize domestic resources, land ad people so as to minimize excessive dependence on foreign aid. It also aimed at maintaining Tanzanian independence and freedom.

o External dimension: this aimed to empower the state and its institutions to establish international cooperation which would facilitate economic as well as enhance political autonomy.

üThe state admitted that it was unable to provide basic needs of the people.

üBut it also stated clearly aid from foreign countries should not form the basis of Tanzania development.

üThe declaration further stated that only aid that did not endanger the country’s freedom to make policy, decisions and implement the policy of socialism and self reliance should be accepted.

• Continuation…

• The declaration generally underlined the dangers of relying on foreign assistance, emphasized hard work and agriculture development. It put less emphasis on industrial and urban development. The declaration was accompanied by a publication of several policy documents, for example:

ü “Socialism and Rural development in September 1967. It aimed at promoting Ujamaa. The concept Ujamaa implied a commitment to a collective way of rural production, life and society.

ü Other policy documents were, Education for Self Reliance issued in March 1967, TANU guidelines issued in February 1971 and the Decentralization policy of many 1972.

• Continuation…

• The Arusha Declaration had the following main objectives:

ü Public ownership and control of the major means of production

ü Self Reliance and elimination of exploitation

ü Establishment of democracy and equality

ü Establishment of socialist agriculture production in Ujamaa villages

ü Establishment of party supremacy

ü Establishment of welfare services to all areas.

• These objectives reflects the fact that the primary aim of the Arusha declaration was to change the direction of societal development so that TANU leadership, the bureaucrats and the social base of the nationalist would grow closer together. It gave a code of controlling the use of political powers by the party and government.

• Continuation…..

• Therefore the analysis of Tanzania development after the Arusha Declaration shows that :

o There was significant increase in the influence of state in development programs. The government planed and supervised different development programs

o State intervention in rural production. In this, people were encouraged to settle in communal villages (Ujamaa villages) to carry out communal production in communal farms. This policy was implemented through villagization policy

o The creation of nucleated villages/communal villages (ujamaa villages) also aimed to foster and simplify expansion of social services such as health, water, transport and education

o The new policy of direct state control of the economy accelerated the speed of the creation of parastatals . Parastatals increased from 64 in 1967 to 139 in 1974.

• Continuation….

o The creation of these parastatals aimed to lower the transfer of profits outside the country in order to expand investments in productive sectors and to improve infrastructure. It was on this ground that the standing committee on parastatal ssorganizations (SCOPO) was created in 1967.

• SECTORAL DEVELOPMENT AFTER THE ARUSHA DECLARATION

AGRICULTURE

• The Arusha Declaration outlined the need of building socialism in rural areas and more importantly the formation of Ujamaa villages where people could live together and cooperate mutually in agricultural production which constituted the backbone of Tanzania's development.

ü To implement this the second five years development plan favored communal villages in terms of social services such health, schools, water and transport. This aimed to encourage people to go in those villages.

• To ensure agricultural development in rural areas:

o Villagization was accompanied by by-laws to ensure that people are thoroughly engaged in agriculture.

• Continuation…

o New agricultural producer price policies were introduced in 1973. this policy aimed at stabilizing prices of agricultural products.

o From 1972 government crop authorities began to be established . For example: tea authority, cotton authority, tobacco authority, coffee authority, etc.

o When villagization implementation was finished in 1976, the government banned corporative unions. Instead, each village was made a primary society and crop authorities were responsible for crop purchase, processing and sell.

• However, not much was achieved in the two decades following the Arusha Declaration to make agriculture the backbone of the country’s economy because:

• Continuation…

o Drought which engulfed the country in the 1970s reduced grain production by as much as 30%.

o The period was featured by famine which was largely induced by government overemphasis on cash crops for foreign currency at the expense of massive movement of people into villages which destroyed existing food supply organizations.

• INDUSTRY

• The Arusha Declaration de-emphasized industrialization as development path because the country had no necessary sources for the sector and the foreign policy was against external dependence. This explain why the second five years development plan developed no comprehensive plan on industrialization.

• However, before the end of the second five years development plan in 1974, the government embarked on the strategy for the development of small scale industry and formed the Small Scale Industry Organization (SIDO) in 1973. such industry could essentially:

o Depend on utilizing local resources

o Develop technical skills in the villages

• Continuation…

o Emphasize self reliance policy

o Providing extra economic activity in rural areas

o Using small capital and reduce rural-urban migration which could result to imbalance between the two areas.

• In 1973 the government invited economists from Harvard institute of international development to make recommendations on the long term industrial strategy. The consultation resulted into the Long Term Industrial Strategy (1975-1995). The plan emphasized on the following:

o Provision of basic needed goods for the Tanzanians

o Developing capital goods industries

o Expanding agro-processing industries, training and researches.

o Promoting small scale industries especially in rural areas.

• Continuation….

• However the industries established suffered from several problems:

o Low labor productivity due to lack of technical skills

o Lack of capital to ensure effective operation of industries

o Agriculture’s inability either to generate sufficient foreign exchange for imports of spare parts and raw materials required by the industries, or to supply domestic factories with raw materials.

• EDUCATION

• The direction of development posed by the Arusha Declaration required a change in the education system in Tanzania, toward a system which will prepare learners to acquire socialist values and be integrated to the community.

• Education for Self Reliance (ESR) was thus an ideological instrument which was to be used to legitimize the state policy of socialism and self reliance as well as the Arusha Declaration at the political level

• In addition, Education for Self Reliance published in 1967 was a reaction against colonial construction f social reality. It was an attempt by Tanzanian government and leadership to conceptualize its own educational agenda which was inward looking and tapping the vast knowledge of the people in the rural areas. An important aspect of the ESR was the attempt to make agriculture an integral part of the curricular

• Continuation….

• Recognizing that Tanzania is basically a rural economy based, with its mainstay based on agricultural production, the leadership sought to produce individuals with a healthy attitude towards agriculture. ESR was agalianitarianistic in nature and demanded provision of basic education for all members of the society

• Generally the document:

• Makes a critique of the inadequacies and inappropriateness of colonial education

• It analyses the socio-economic and political realities that existed around 1967.

• It outlined the kind of society Tanzania was trying to build, that is, a democratic socialist state.

• It proposed changes designed to transform the education system in order to make it more relevant in serving the needs and aims of socialist society with a predominantly rural economy

• Continuation…

• In order to meet the social, economic and vocational goals, ESR demanded the following in the system of education

• ESR called for the classification and improvement of the sources of instructional content, it stressed the need to establish educational content from both primary and secondary sources.

• ESR demanded a change in the content of the curriculum itself, it called for selecting and organizing the content which is relevant to he society and which can prepare learners for the life and revival of the society. Curriculum must enable people to act upon their environment and change it for their benefit



• Continuation….

• ESR demanded a change in the teaching/learning activities and interaction between teachers and learners. This called for learners to learn y doing, integrate theory and practice though experimentation. It involves developing mind and self confidence. It also calls for change in the social interaction between the teacher and the learners and other members

• ESR demanded integration of schools with the community. Schools must be both, social and economic communities and they have to contribute to their up keep. Schools must develop positive attitudes of learners towards works.

• ESR demanded re-examination of the purpose of evaluation of student performance and their fine employment of alternative procedures of evaluation. It called for down grading examination because they don’t always provide positive results and they encourage rote learning

• Continuation…..

• In 1974 TANU National executive meeting passed what came to be known as the Musoma resolution which reinforced the educational directives laid out in ESR. Schools were explicitly directed to integrate work into the curriculum so as to inculcate high regard for dignity and manual labor.

v Adult education: this was another important aspect in Tanzania education policy. Basic Adult Education got its prominence when president Nyerere announced that the year 1970 would be the year of Adult Education.

• Following the announcement, financial and human resources were directed to adult education to dedicate illiteracy in five years.

• Adult education was a means of making peasants understand socialism and self reliance, but also rural development and co-operation in Ujamaa villages.



• Continuation….

• To facilitate this program, primary schools became centers for adult education, offering training in agricultural techniques, health education, housecraft, simple economics, political education, basic writing and reading.



• As a result of this program, illiteracy rate decreased from 75% in 1970 to 40% in 1975 and was recorded 15% in 1983. By 1985 this rate had decreased to 11%

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