The background of Abushiri and Bwana heri Resistance

ABUSHIRI AND BWANA HERI RESISTANCE 

This was African reaction along the coastal region where rich Arabs and local merchants had invested in coconut and cereal plantations in a large scale as well as trade activities. These plantation activities depended much on the interior, but the German company suppressed slave trade, hence affected the supply of labour to plantations. This event threatened the Arabs and, local merchant plantation owners. In 1888" the company agents imposed taxes and began to collect it from all people including feudal lords and rich merchants.




The coastal African resistance was led by Abushiri bin Salumel Hathi of Pangani. He organized his force and began to fight in August 1888, when the German company officials established themselves and hoisted the German flag in all the major coastal towns. In other cases, they opposed mosques and began to regulate the trade along caravan routes. The fighting extended to many coastal areas, thus other coastal people in Bagamoyo also joined the Abushiri's force against Germans.




The Abushiri resistance became so stiff that, the British joined the German forces by utilizing their naval forces, which had been used to suppress slave trade in the Indian Ocean, In order to make effective suppression, the German Chancellor sent major Hermann Von Wissman, a soldier and an, explorer with experience in different East African areas, He commanded German forces and recruited Mercenaries with the aim of' employing this force to crush the Abushiri uprising. These mercenaries comprised 600 Sudanese, 20 Turkish police, 400 Zulus, 21 officers and some soldier's from Tanganyika.




Starting from May, 1889, the German forces, under Major Von Wissman, were suppressing the Abushiri and regained most of the coastal towns within a few months: Finally, the leaders of this resistance were weakened, thus failing to co-ordinate their attacks. They faced strong German counter-attack. Abushiri fled to Mpwapwa in the Interior but he was weakened by Major Von Wissmans attack when German forces attacked Mpwapwa. Abushiri’s efforts were also affected by a person known as Magaya-a Jumbe orvillage headman in Usagara who betrayed him to the Germans. At the end Abushiri was captured and publicly hanged on 15th December, 1889.




Another coastal resistance was led by Bwana Heri of Uzigua, who fought against German forces since January 1889, when the German forces captured Saadani. Bwana Heri escaped to the interior where he built a fortress and staged a strong resistance against German forces until April 1890. Later on, Bwana Heri surrendered and ran away. After suppressing Abushiri and Bwana Heri the German forces faced another strong resistance in the southern coastal areas of Tanganyika. This was led by Hassani Bin Omari Makunganya of Kilwa. He organized and led a strong attack against German fortress in Kilwa, but he was defeated by the German forces. After his defeat, Hassan bin Omari fled to the inland where he organized another attack. However, the Germans realized his plan and pre-empted it.




Finally, Hassan bin Omari Makunganya was captured and hanged on a mango tree in Kilwa Kivinje, in May 1890. Since then, the mango tree was used by Germans for hanging all African victims publicly so as to threaten and warn Africans not to engage in further revolts and alert those who disobeyed' the government orders. The coastal active resistance against Germans was brought to an end by the defeat and hangings of Omari bin Hassan Makunganya.

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THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE 1891 - 1894

THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE 1891 - 1894

This was another reaction against Germany colonial rule which was staged by Nyarnwezi under Chief, Isike. Initially the Nyamwezi had business relations with Germans, they conducted trade together. But later on the Nyamwezi realized that the German's intention of monopolizing their trade which passed through their land to important trading centres like Ujiji; and Mwanza, controlling land and ruling them. In order to avoid the German control, Chief Isike organized his people to take up arms and closed the trade routes for number of months. Due to poor weapons Nyamwezi were defeated by the well organized and equipped German forces. In 1893 Chief Isike's fort was badly destroyed by German forces. Chief Isike decided to blow up himself together with his family ·in the gun powder magazine rather than being captured by the Germans.

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The Origin or background of the Hehe Resistance of 1891-1898

 THE HEHE RESISTANCE 1891-1898



This was one among the most notable active small scale resistances, which were very fierce since they involved military action sand was well organized. The leader of this reaction was Chief Mkwawa who is also known as chief Mkwavinyika. The name Mkwavinyika means the conqueror of lands. The Hehe resistance was caused by the German occupation of several areas in Mainland Tanganyika (the present day Tanzania) such as Ugogo, Ukaguru, Usagara and Mpwapwa, which had economic importance to the Hehe ruling class. These occupied areas were potential for trade activities thus German occupation threatened the economic position of Hehe ruling class.



Before taking up arms, Chief Mkwavinyika (Mkwawa) sent a delegation with present to meet the German administrators at the coast. 

The Germans responded by requesting the chief to surrender his sovereignty and they showed a disregard of the Chief Mkwavinyika's request by killing all the men in his delegation. Chief Mkwavinyika reacted by blocking all- the' caravan routes passing through the area to disrupt the German trade, hence they failed to obtain raw materials from the interior. This event angered the German rulers and decided to send a military force led by commander of German forces. Chief 

Mkwavinyika's force managed to defeat the German forces on 16th August 1891 at Lugalo. 

The defeat was associated with killing of several people, including commander of the German forces, Emil Von Zelewsky, and three hundred (300) African soldiers. The Mkwavinyika's army also captured about three (3) cannons and three hundred (300) rifles from the German forces. The defeat of German by the Hehe actually shocked the colonial administration and showed the strength of Hehe's army. After three years the German prepared their force for another attack.


Before attacking the Hehe empire, the German administrators sent a delegation to chief Mkwavinyika which required him to pay for the war indemnity he 'had caused on Germans, recognizing the Kaiser's sovereignty, surrender the war weapons he captured at first attack, stop conquering the neighboring territory and allow the European Missionaries and traders to access the Uhehe by the routes he blocked. Chief Mkwawa rejected all the demands.




Germans attacked the Hehe in October 1894 and managed to capture Kalenga, which was Mkwavinyika's capital. He escaped and organized a guerrilla warfare, which extended for about four years. Later on the German patrol caught up Mkwavinyika in July 1898, and surrounded him while he was very tired, sick and alone; he decided to shoot himself rather than being captured while still alive. This marked the decline of the Hehe ruling class and the beginning of German control.

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What were the reasons for African resistance against colonial domination

Armed or Active resistance

It is the form of reaction involved the use of weapons by Africans to fight against Europeans and prevent them from imposing colonial rule in their territories. Example of active or armed resistance in Africa include the Mandinka in west Africa, Majimaji in Tanganyika, Nama and Herero uprising in Namibia, Shona and Ndebele uprising in Zimbabwe and Nandi resistance in Kenya.

Passive resistance

Refers to unarmed opposition. It also means the adaptation of non-cooperative measures with the colonial powers but without using violence. This can be exemplified by the Pogoro of Tanzania who refused to involve in colonial activities like cotton picking.




Reasons for African resistance against colonial domination

• Some leaders resisted colonial powers in order to defend social and political sovereignty. For example, Kabarega of Bunyoro fought the British, Mkwawa of the Hehe and Abushiri resisted the Germans in Tanganyika.

• Africans wanted to preserve their monopolies. Until 1890’s the African trade merchants were conducting trade between the coastal areas and the interior. For example, the Nyamwezi under Isike and the Yao under Machemba resisted Germans because the later interfered the long distance trade and wanted to control it and collect tax.

• African rulers resisted colonialism due to its repressive administrative and economic policies. For example, the Belgians in Congo and Germans in Namibia, Tanganyika and Togo were very repressive against the native.

• African wanted to defend their religious practices and culture as in the case of the Maji Maji uprising (1905-1907), the Shona and Ndebele resistance (1896-1897).

• Some had to resist because the white man’s Christianity opposed certain African practices such as polygamy, drinking beer, spiritual and ancestral worship and human sacrifices.

• Other societies resisted because they believed that they were politically and military strong as they unaware of European military strength. For example, Chief Machemba of Yao in Makonde believed that his troops could smash easily that of the Germany.

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What were the reasons for African collaboration.

  Collaboration or Alliance

Collaboration means the cooperation between Africans and European invaders. It can be explained as adaptation. This method involved forming alliance with the Europeans against indigenous enemies and concluding treaties. Example of African societies, which made alliance with the Europeans were Creoles, Maasai, Baganda and Lozi.




Reasons for African collaboration.

• Some societies allied with the foreigners because they were incapable of holding out the invaders and they saw that it was fruitless to fight, as they weak military.

• Some African leaders sought an alliance with the Europeans as they considered that it was one of the means of avoiding confrontation and keeping off their rival neighbors. Example, the Baganda and Omukama Kasagama of Toro allied with the British because they were afraid of Kabarega of Bunyoro who was strong military.

• African hoped to gain from the Europeans or even acquire arms from them. Examples are the Nambongo Mumia of Waga and Mutesa I of Buganda.

• Some collaborated because they desired to have atmosphere of peace and promote human development for they had been subjected to constant war fare that disrupted the harmony and evolution of economic sector like trade in their societies. Example Yoruba who had been constantly tortured by Ibadan, the Fante by the Asante and the Toro of Bunyoro.

• Most rulers collaborated because they were ignorant of European intention. They were fooled by presents and bribes and were sometime persuaded to sign treaties beyond their understanding. Example Mwanga of Buganda and in West Africa Jaja of Opobo and Samori Toure.

• Some Africans made alliance with Europeans because they had suffered greatly from natural calamities. Therefore they sought that Europeans would bring them relief aid. Example the Kikuyu, Maasai, the Chagga and Sambaa would have certainly resisted the imposition of colonial rule if epidemics had not exerted adverse effects.

• Individual Africans made friendship with colonialists because they were opportunistic self-seekers hoping to acquire wealth, prestige, rewards and other presents. For example, Semei Kakunguru of Buganda, Nuwa Mbaguta of Ankole and Wanyiki of Kikuyu, all these had personal interests and ambitions.

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What were the techniques used to impose or establish Colonialism in Africa

ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL CONTROL AND AFRICA REACTION

Colonialism is the political, social and economic system in which one powerful nation invades and dominated the foreign weak nation by establishing exploitative structure in a country. The country which is dominated by the powerful nation is known as a colony where by those people from powerful nation or colonizing nation, who lead the colonized country are known as colonialists. The establishment of colonial control in Africa was made effective between 1885 and 1912 whereby all African countries became under colonial rule except Ethiopia and Liberia, which were not colonized. To achieve the objectives of controlling African continent, different approaches were used by the colonial power to impose colonial rule in Africa. The type of techniques used depended on reactions posed by the Africans. These techniques were;



1. Treaty making (Diplomacy)

European powers signed treaties with various African rulers from different territories. In most cases, these treaties served the interest of the colonizers. This was the most suitable way of imposing colonial rule over different African territories.



Such treaties were bogus and misled the local rulers in many ways such as they promised to protect Africans rulers from external forces as well as supplying weapons. Example Dr. Karl Peters signed many treaties with Chief Mangungo of Msovero on behalf of Germany East Africa Company; Kabaka Mwanga signed treaties with Imperial British East Africa Company in 1890 and 1902 under Fredrick Lugard. After the treaties African countries fell under the control of European powers.



2. Alliance of Collaboration

This method involves the alliance or collaboration between the colonizing power and African societies or with some local agents in order to occupy the land of neighboring societies. These alliances intensified divisions among African societies. Example, in Tanganyika Germans collaborated with Sangu and Bena against their neighbors, the Hehe. The collaboration gave them hope of making revenge to Hehe who had been enemies for a long time.



3. Military force and conquest

This tactics were used in areas where the colonizing power faced strong resistance from the Africans societies, military conquest was common tactic and it was employed either directly or indirectly. For example Portuguese employed military force and conquest to impose their rule in colonies of Mozambique and Angola while the British used the same tactics to administer the area led by Kabarega of Bunyoro in Uganda.



4. Intimidation

This means creating fear among the people by European by demonstrating their military strength or capability very close to the local rulers who did not accept colonial rule. Sometimes it was the form of military training near African villages, which were reluctant and sometime it was associated with actual killings. Example Germans used this method in 1884 to force the sultan of Zanzibar to sign Karl Peter’s treaty, the British forced Jaja of Opobo to submit his Kingdom.

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What are the reasons and the Terms of the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890

Reasons for the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 (Heligoland Treaty)

• Bismarck wanted to secure Germany’s position in Europe. But his great fear was France and Britain’s opposition. Hence, to avert this danger, he was prepared to make concessions in East Africa

• The British protectorate of Zanzibar was to be recognized. Hence, the recognition of the British prote’ge’ by the Germans would eliminate the British grudge.

• The Island of Heligoland in the North Sea was to be given to the Germans. The Germans believed that this would be a valuable naval base.

• In January 1890, Kabaka Mwanga signed the treaty of protectorate with Karl Peters that placed Buganda in the hands of the Germans. By then, however, Britain had already colonized Egypt in order to guard the Suez Canal. Britain did not want the source of the Nile to be under any big power, so she worked to colonize Uganda.

• The British wanted to persuade the Sultan to cede to the Germans the ten miles of coastal strip of the mainland. The Sultan agreed to this for the equivalent of two hundred thousand dollars. Germany agreed to abandon all claims to the Witu region (north of the British sphere), which would mean the end of the Witu German Protectorate, granted in the agreement of 1886.

Terms of the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890

• The Germans and British dominated the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890, which the Sultan played only a minor role. The following points made up the terms of the agreement:

• Tanganyika and an island in the North Sea became Germany’s sphere of influence. This agreement is sometimes referred to as the “Heligoland Treaty” for the Germans gave up their claims to Witu.

• Zanzibar, Pemba, Kenya, and Uganda became British spheres of influence. This agreement completed the partition of East Africa on paper. What remained for the respective colonial powers was to establish their colonial administrations. Both powers left this to their chartered companies.

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What are the Reasons and Terms of the Anglo-German Agreement of 1886

Anglo-German agreement of 1886

The Anglo-German agreement of November 1886 affected Britain, Germany and the Sultan of Zanzibar.




Reasons for the Anglo-German Agreement of 1886

• On 5th February 1885, Karl Peters presented his treaties to Bismarck and to President Kaiser William I. The latter granted him a charter (imperial) that stated that the area visited by him was to come under German colonization. Their society was named the German East African Company (G.E.A.C.).

• · Due to Germany’s recognition of Karl Peter’s treaties, the British and the Sultan’s interests were threatened. The Sultan was saddened and appealed to Sir John Kirk, the British consul who was residing in South Africa, for assistance. To solve the matter peacefully, the Anglo- German agreement was obligatory.

• British and German companies interfered with each other’s spheres of influence. In order to dissolve the rivalry between the British East African Company (I.B.E.A.C.) and the German East African Company (G.E.A.C.), they called the conference in 1886.

Terms of the Anglo-German Agreement of 1886

• The Anglo-German Agreement of 1886 was between the German and the British, who together with the Sultan reached the following agreements:

• The Germans and the British recognized the Sultan’s sphere of influence, which included Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu, Mogadishu, Merca, Brava, and 10 miles of the coastal strip.

• The territory between the Ruvuma and Tana rivers was divided into German and British spheres of influences near Lake Victoria, which is now the boundary between Tanzania and Kenya.

• The Britain agreed to support Germany’s claims to establish a customhouse at Dar es Salaam, thus becoming a virtually German possession.

• Britain agreed to recognize the German possession of Witu and its territory to the sea at Manda Bay.

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what is partion processes made during scramble for and partion of Africa

THE PARTITION PROCESSES IN EAST AFRICA




The partition of East Africa was the outcome of the development of European monopoly capitalism, which manifested itself on the African continent in the form of colonialism. Various factors stimulated the partition of Africa and escalated the division of East Africa. In our exploration here, our main attention will focus only on those things that accelerated the scramble for and partition of East Africa, including the following;

i) The development of commercial rivalries between Germany’s company and the British consul in Zanzibar accelerated the partition process. The British consul sought the partition of East Africa in order to monopolize trade and communication on the Tanzania mainland.

ii) The Anglican missionaries in Uganda appealed to their government to assist them during their conflicts with Kabaka Mutesa I. The Catholics requested protection from the French; hence, they desired Uganda to be in the hands of Germans and they supported Karl Peters’ treaty with Kabaka Mutesa.

iii) Early attempts made by King Leopold II to establish the Belgian Empire from the lower Congo to the coast of East Africa antagonized the British and Germans, who were already in the area.

iv) Karl Peter, who arrived in East Africa in April 1884 to sign treaties with mainland Tanzania and Uganda’s Kabaka Mutesa I, embittered the British. German authority officially confirmed Bismarck annexed these treaties and the areas visited by him without consulting the sultan of Zanzibar.

v) After the establishment of the British in Egypt, they sought to occupy Uganda and Kenya. The latter was to serve the landlocked country of Uganda and to ensure that Uganda would not fall in the hands of the rival powers, such as Germany and France, who could then control the Nile waters and turn Egypt into a desert.

vi) The Germans also scrambled for colonies in East Africa due to the need for raw materials to support German industrialization. Manufacturers put pressure on the government to acquire colonies. Moreover, Germany was also interested in protecting French Catholic missionaries, who called upon them for protection in Uganda.

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What are the Impacts or effects of the Berlin Conference.

Impacts/effects of the Berlin Conference.

• Berlin conference partitioned/sliced Africa among the imperialists into colonial possessions and fixed the boundaries in their interests. Britain got 27 colonies, France 12 colonies, German 9 colonies, Belgium 2 colonies etc.

• The Berlin conference gave the international recognition to a process that has been going on quite some time. Although the conference initially aimed at solving the conflicting interest in the Congo and Niger Delta, it turned out to be conference for parceling out the whole of Africa.

• It led to the loss of African sovereignty/independence to the imperialist European nations who established colonial rule. After passing the act of effective occupation many imperialist nations begun to send colonial agents, administrators to take over the colonial process thus the colonization of Africa.

• The Berlin act made necessary for imperialists to send representative to begin grabbing land of the Africans. Initially they left the administration of their spheres to the commercial East African company, and the imperial British East African company all these commercial companies aimed at maximizing profit through intensive exploitation.

• It led to the abolition of slave trade and the introduction of legitimate trade which benefited the imperialists. Colonial agents like missionaries and traders were sent to carry out vigorous campaign against slavery and slave trade and in place legitimate trade should be introduced, where cheap European goods should be traded in exchange with African raw materials like cotton coffee sisal palm oil ground nuts etc.

• It led to the suffering of African people under colonial administration especially when they resisted the colonial rule many were crushed to death. For stance between 1880s -1890s when France begun aggressive policy of wide spread colonization in West Africa. They pushed towards upper Niger. The Tukolor Empire under the leadership of al hajj Umar and the new expanding Mandika under the leadership of Samori began military campaign to oppose the French domination.

• The Berlin conference did not satisfy the ambitions of all imperialists nations which led to the outbreak of First World War and Second World War Germany still searched for more colonies as to equalize with Britain and France such desires promoted conflicts.

• The Berlin conference divided African ethnic origin into separated colonial boundaries e.g. the Makonde in Mozambique and in Tanganyika, the Maasai in Kenya and Tanganyika, the Luo in Kenya, Sudan and Uganda.

• It made Africa to become a property of Europeans but not for Africans any more. They made the economies of Africa to respond to their economical problems. This created many Africa economies to become dependant to the metro pole economies, we produced what they needed and we consumed what they wanted.

• The conference managed to divert the war which was eminent among the imperialists. While scrambling of the spheres of interests the imperialist powers were about to go to war, but the Berlin conference managed to divert the would be war

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Factors considered in dividing African continent Scramble for and partition of Africa

Factors considered in dividing African continent.

• Early settlement of European from different countries, in some parties of Africa which were occupied by European before the Berlin conference like missionaries, traders, explorers and traveler, for example Cecil Rhodes in southern Africa John Moffat who stayed in Matebele land for about thirty years the Portuguese who stayed in Angola and Mozambique for long, the Berlin conference considered this case by giving the territories o individual European nations in favour.

• The early exploration and discoveries. Former exploration of some African region was also another factor for a certain nation to receive a certain territory, for example in case of Dr. living stone’s exploration in central Africa he drew the map of Chobe river in nowadays Zimbabwe fell under the British government which had sent Dr. living stone, in the similar case curl peters won Tanganyika for Germany.

• Strategic factors, also this factor pre determined the division of Africa region among the European nations for instance the Egyptian British question explain the reason for the timing and dividing African continent among the European powers, factors considered to be strategic included existence of rivers for easy navigation in the interior existence of minerals population and fertility of the soils.

• The treaties signed between African and European and between European county and European country were also another consideration in determining the division of the African territories among the imperialists, e.g. H. Johnson made treaties with Mangi Rindi of Kilimanjaro in July 1884 and Karl peters organized more treaties in Usambara, Uzigua, Ukami and Kilosa.

• Influence and development in the region, this was also considered a factor to determine the division of African continent among the imperialist powers, in areas which any European power had already put some investments or had influence over it before the Berlin conference was also distributed to her, e.g. Zanzibar with the British who had already shown interest over the islands.

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What are the Resolutions or principles reached during Berlin Conference.

Resolutions/principles reached during Berlin Conference.

• The Congo basin was declared Free State under king Leopard of Belgium and the Niger River was free for navigation to all imperialist nations. It recognized Leopard’s so-called international association as the legitimate authority in Congo basin. In return the Belgium king agreed to allow European traders and missionaries free access to the area.

• Strong and sophisticated military weapons were prohibited to be brought in Africa. They allowed light weapons to be used in Africa. This aimed to maintain security in the colonies and to avoid the accessibility of such strong weapons to the colonized subjects. (Africans).

• Effective occupation should be implemented by the imperialist Nations as a sign for claim of any colony by the imperialist nation. Administrators must be sent in the colonies. The conference agreed claim of any area would only be recognized by other European nation if it was ‘effectively occupied’ by that particular European power. This was a deliberate tactic of Bismarck to under mind British claim in the vague ‘spheres of influence.

• In case of resistance by Africans to the colonial Occupation, no any European country should give help to the Africans to fight fellow European. That was another resolution that was reached upon by the Berlin conference so as to make Africans defeated and colonized by the imperialists. This appeared as an alliance among the imperialist powers. 

• All colonial powers, should take the initiative to abolish slave trade and slavery in their colonies and to allow free excess to the colonial agents in: the interior as to campaign against slave trade and spread civilization in the interior.

• In case of any disputes among the imperialist powers they should solve it peacefully without the use of force. As to maintain solidarity and Unity in the foreign land of Africa. Using force may weaken one European power, which can also make her to be defeated by the Africans.

• If a nation occupies a coastal area it had to extend it legally, to the interior and to colony of another colonial master.

• Principle of notification. It was agreed that a power requiring any part of Africa was supposed to inform another power in order to escape misunderstanding among the powers i.e. the principle of notification among the imperialist powers.

• The conference also agreed that areas in Africa already proclaimed protectorate by European nations before conference should remain in their hands, such areas included the Congo and those territories which Germany had annexed like Togo South West Africa (Namibia)

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What were the objectives of Berlin Conference.

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884 -1885)



Introduction

The Berlin conference was also the second stage in the colonization of Africa after the scramble for. This stage begun from 1880’s to 1890’s. It was characterized with the intervention of late corners, in the process of scramble and partition i.e. Italy and German after their unification they became powerful and industrialized thus search for industrial raw materials and markets. The conference was convened by Otto Van Bismarck in 1884/1885 and it was attended by 27 countries including all the imperialist power, like German Britain, France, Italy, Denmark, U.S.A etc. The major aim of the conference was to divert the world from war.




Objectives of Berlin Conference.

• To avoid military confrontation among the imperialist powers that was eminent. Among the imperialist powers especially after the joining of Germany as a late corner in the process after taking over colonies in Togo, Cameroon, South west Africa (Namibia) and what came to be known as Germany East Africa the present clay Tanzania Burundi and Rwanda. This increased the intensity of rivalries among the imperialist Nations in the scramble and partition of Africa. Thus the conferences aimed to easy the rivalries and solve the problem peacefully.

• To abolish slave trade and slavery in Africa and establish the so-called ‘legitimate trade’. Slave trade had been abolished long time in 1830’s. But still some European nations were still reluctant -a implement the resolution. This conference also aimed at emphasizing the abolition of slave trade in Africa and in place monopoly European companies were to be introduced to carry on the so-called ‘legitimate trade’ where European goods would be traded freely.

• To clear up the existing boundaries. This was the source of disputes among the imperialist powers. Especially between Britain and France who possessed indefinable areas of interest in West, Central and East Africa. And to define areas of effective occupation so that no any other country should claim the already occupied area.

• Bismarck also aimed on taming French hostilities, after her defeat in the Franco- Prussian war of 1871 where she lost her resourceful regions of Alsace and Lorraine to German.

• It aimed to enable German and Italy to join the process of scramble, following their unification, as the late corners after under going industrial revolution.

• It was also called as to maintain European balance of power among the European nations through equalize political and economic powers.

• Why was it called by German?

• German unification; made German to be the most powerful nation in Europe after defeatingFrance, Denmark and Austria the European balance of power was in her favor. That’s why she was able to command other European nations.

• · The industrialization of German; which made German to be in need of raw materials badly of, cheap labor and area for investment, thus she wanted colonies from Africa hence called the Berlin conference.

• · The role of Otto Van Bismarck, he was a very ambitious leader who wanted recognition by other European leaders thus the calling of the Berlin conference.

• · The late coming of German in the process of scrambling and partition of Africa. To enable her to acquire some colonies.

• · The hostility between France and German. Made Germany to call for this conference as to check on France expansionism in Africa, that may make her very powerful economically and militarily and able to revenge Germany in future.

• The rise of monopoly capitalism in German which made German to extend her influence beyond her boundaries.

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Which areas experienced intensive scramble in Africa

AREAS WHICH EXPERIENCED INTENSIVE SCRAMBLE




1. EGYPT AND NILE VALLEY.

Originated with British Imperialist with the ambition to control Egypt because of the Suez Canal and the river Nile. The Suez Càna1 was built by French engineers and it was opened in 1869 with that Britain became increasingly involved in Egyptian affairs. Any European power tempering with the Nile was regarded as a big enemy of Britain French expansionism towards the Nile.




2. THE CONGO BASIN.

The power involved were France, Belgium, Portugal and Britain; French claims over Congo Basin the claims were supported by the treaties signed between the local rulers and the French agents called DE BRAZZA Belgium had claims over the Congo Basin the claims were support by the treaties signed between France, Stanley and the local rulers. Portugal had claims over the Congo basin That Congo was very close to the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique Britain has vested imperialist interest in the Congo Basin rich agricultural land and -mineral potentialities and also existence of internal rivers and lakes for easy navigation. Such diversity interest led to intensive scramble among the imperialist nations which led to the calling of Berlin conference as to divert military confrontation.




3. NIGER DELTA BASIN.

The power involved was Britain, France and German. The source of the conflict originated in the British imperialist ambitions to control the Niger delta any power tempering with the region was regarded as a big enemy of Britain. Expansionism from Cameroon to the region alarmed the British disputes occurred among the three powers.




4. EAST AFRICA.

The power involved was Britain and Germany as British wanted to control the source of river Nile. The controversy originates in Britain imperialist interest to control the river Nile from its source to its mouth-end. The establishment of Germany influence in East Africa claimed the British fearing of intervening with the Nile disputes occurred between the two powers. The reason for scramble was fertile soil and good climate, e.g. the Lake Region and Kilimanjaro. The 1886 and 1890 Anglo German agreement was the product of this scramble.




5. CENTRAL AFRICA.

These included countries from central and southern




6. SOUTH AFRICA.

Powers involved were France, German, Portugal, Belgium Italy and Britain Source of conflict was the controversy in the British ambition to establish a continental corridor from Cape Town to Cairo. Each area passed by the railway has to be put under British control .The white elephant project claimed the root competition, which other European countries were not prepared to except this led to the European nation into a situation of going to war thus led to another stage to the-colonization of Africa i.e. the calling of the Berlin conference of 1 884/5.




Generally: Intensification of European scrambles in the so-called strategic region, broaden disputes andrivalries among the European contending powers. The disputes and rivalries created the war situation; the war was inevitable among the European powers. In order to solve the disputes which could occur, diplomatic initiatives were taken by chancellor Otto von Bismarck of Germany by convening Berlin conference. The conference resolved to partition Africa into colonial possession in order to avoid war among European powers which had become inevitable. The conference laid for the principle of dividing and occupying Africa which culminated into the establishment of the evil of colonialism in Africa.

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What are the Causes of the scramble for and partition of Africa in the last quarter of 19th century by European powers

Causes for the scramble for and partition of Africa in the last quarter of 19th century by European powers.

The scramble of Africa reached her zenith towards the last quarter of 19th century and a result to solve the problem Africa was partitioned into colonial possession among the imperialist nations the forces behind the scramble for Africa is still appoint of contention among various Historians.

The Euro-centric historian argues that the cause for the colonization of Africa was due to humanitarian reasons i.e. to spread “civilization” in Africa, abolition of slave trade etc.

While the Afro- centric/Marxist historians refute the above argument and argue that the causes of the scramble were development of imperialism especially during the stage of industrial revolution in Europe in 1750.

A. Industrial Revolution/economic factor

Industrial revolution in Europe was the major cause of colonization of Africa; it brought contradictions within the capitalist economies whereby, Africa became a solution to solve those contradictions. The rise of monopoly capitalism in Europe changed the industrial environment of Europe. Up to 18770’s Britain dominated the world market and it was popularly known as the worker shop of the world, because of her industrial hegemony.

• Her industrial supremacy was being increasingly challenged by France, USA and Germany, the world market was becoming smaller and smaller as the industrialized countries were competing for the same market, such contradiction prompted the colonization of Africa that was a potential markets for European finished industrial goods. Industrial capitalism led to;

• It led to the rise of surplus population in Europe whereby there was unemployment, high crime rate, prostitution, insane, and idlers, that failed to fit in the new industrialized Europe thus a search for area of settlement and employment hence colonization of Africa which aimed at forestalling violent social upheavals in the capitalist countries.

• Industrial revolution led to the rise of workers movement and proletariazation in Europe or trade unions like Chartism, Luddism and new model trade unions who demanded high payment, good working condition, and the reduction of working hours. This made production in Europe very expensive and fall in profits of the bourgeoisie.

• Application of hostile tariffs or trade barriers within Europe, led to the abolition of free trade in 1870s as capitalism changed from competitive to monopoly stage. At this stage of capitalism it was characterized with centralization and concentration of capital that gave birth to monopolistic companies, and rise protectionism, This narrowed European markets and the solution was to come to African where super normal profits could be accumulated because raw materials could be obtained cheaply, labor was lowly paid and in most cases land was simply grabbed.

• Overproduction and under consumption, in European market. Whereby the purchasing power of many European consumers was very low as compared to the level of production. In 1870s western European factories were producing so many cheap goods that were running out of people to sell them to; their home market was no longer enough to consume all the produce. The imperialists turned more and more to Africa. Thus the scramble and eventual Colonization of Africa in the last quarter of l9th century.

• Scientific gains in Europe especially in the field of medicine, the discovery of quinine and chroloquine reduced the threat of malaria in Africa by imperialists hence they came and colonize Africa.

• Development of state monopoly, the marriage of interest between the state and the bourgeois in the metro pole influenced the export of capital and the bourgeois state used its militarism or state power to defend investment abroad by subduing any resistance in the colony

• Tendency of profit to fail in Europe. It become unprofitable to invest in the metro pole due to cut throat competition, protectionism and an Economic slump of 1873- 1893 that led to the fall of commodity prices drastically thus the cause to come in Africa where raw materials were obtained very cheaply labor was almost for free and land was in most cases simply alienated from the indigenous people.

• Role of colonial agents [men on the spot] these were the colonial agents who provided the information feedback and reported the economic potentiality of Africa that persuaded their home government to come and take over African counties. These included missionaries trades and explorers, who are own as fore runners of colonialism. They were essential ingredient of the increasingly assertive European presence of imperial control in most cases Christian missionaries’ p1ayd a significant role in promoting and shaping the advent of European colonialism, especially in the last quarter of 19th. In other words they paved way for the colonization of Africa.

B. Other Factors
1. Strategic reasons

• The colonization of Africa was also motivated due to strategic reasons some areas were considered more attractive economically thus led the scramble and partition of Africa. Such areas included those that possessed minerals like gold, diamond, copper e.g. Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. These areas were strongly scrambled for by the imperialist included areas with;

• Accessibility to the interior: the existence of internal rivers like Congo River Lake Tanganyika take Victoria and river Nile in Uganda an Sudan up to Egypt were the epicenter of the scramble of Africa and the numerical number of the population, which would act as the potential market for Europeans goods e.g. Nigeria Senegal and Uganda were also some of the factors that accelerated intensive scrambled and partition of Africa.

• Fertility of the soil, that favored cash crops, areas such as Kenyan highlands, Botswana, Zimbabwe etc. and Presence of colonial agents especially missionaries who invited their home government to come to take over the colonies e.g. Mullatoes in Mozambique the missionaries in Buganda, Where also some of the strategic factors for colonization.

• Numerical numbers of the population was also another strategic factor considered when struggling for colonies in Africa. Densely populated areas would work as steady market for European finished goods.

2. Prestigious reasons

• The more colonies one country had the more powerful were considered, this made many European countries to scramble to get as more colonies as possible. Even less industrialized nations joined in the rush to stake a claim to part of Africa. The possession of colonies became national prestige within Europe. This was due to fanatical nationalism in which each nation insisted on superiority over the other especially on the realm of military power, national prestige and wealthy, thus intensive scramble of Africa.

3. European balance of power

• The issue of balance of power was considered among the major movers of the scramble and partition of Africa. Central in this issue was the unification of Germany and Italy in 1870s. The unification of Germany was a direct threat to British and French industrial domination both of which set up vigorous search for market in Africa that later alone were followed by the Germany, thus the scramble and partition of Africa.

• Balance of power in Europe can be traced in 1815 during the Vienna congress that followed the fall of the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814 in the battle of waterloo. In this meeting they agreed that all European countries were supposed to equalize militarily strength economic and political. No expansion was to be done within Europe. Therefore Africa became the area of expansion for European powers hence the colonization.

4. Development of European Nationalism.

• Every European Country saw necessary to have colonies in Africa as a symbol of Nationalism. This nationalism in Europe grew to the climax especially after the Germany unification of 1871 after defeating France in the Franco-Prussian war hence the nationalism was accelerated much by the colonial agents that were in Africa such a state of affair made the scramble of Africa inevitable.

5. Darwinism theory and Monroe.

• The strongest take over the weakest [survival of the fittest] Africa was weak and Europe was strong hence the colonization.

6. The Franco Prussian war of 1871.

• The war between German and France, where France was defeated very badly and lost her resourceful regions for industrial advancement Alsace and Lorain to German. France decided to compensate such losses by acquiring colonies in Africa to act as source of industrial raw materials for her industries. This forced other European countries to follow, thus scramble and partition.

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